The Muslim 100: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of the Most Influential Muslims in History

By Muhammad Mojlum Khan

"It is rare to see a publication which includes personalities from both Shia and Sunni schools of thought and which is so much needed in today's turbulent world. This book, I believe will . . . enrich our understanding of not only the historical but the contemporary history of the Muslim."—Ahmed J. Versi, chief editor of The Muslim News (London)

Who have been the Muslim world's most influential people? What were their ideas, thoughts, and achievements? In one hundred short and engaging profiles of these extraordinary people, fourteen hundred years of the vast and rich history of the Muslim world is unfolded. For anyone interested in getting an intimate view of Islam through its kings and scholars, generals and sportsmen, architects and scientists, and many others—this is the book for you.

Among those profiled are the Prophet Muhammad, the Caliph Umar, Imam Husain, Abu Hanifa, Harun al-Rashid, al-Khwarizmi, al-Ghazali, Saladin, Rumi, Ibn Battuta, Sinan, Ataturk, Iqbal, Jinnah, Ayatollah Khomeini, Malcolm X, and Muhammad Ali.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Kube Publishing Ltd
• Release date: May 3, 2022
• ISBN: 9781847741745

Muhammad Mojlum Khan

Muhammad Mojlum Khan is an award-winning British writer, literary critic and research scholar. He has published more than 200 essays and articles worldwide. He is the author of several internationally acclaimed books including The Muslim Heritage of Bengal (2013), Great Muslims of the West: Makers of Western Islam (2017) and Muslims in British India: Life and Times of Nawab Abdul Latif C.I.E. (forthcoming). He is a Fellow of The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland Member of The Royal Historical Society and Founding Director of Bengal Muslim Research Institute UK. 

Book preview

This book is dedicated to my late father

Muhammad Pathan Yawar Khan

(b. 1932–d. 1988),

a direct descendant of Pathan Inayatullah Khan of Inayatganj, who served as a Mughal Faujdar (Governor/Administrator) of Sylhet (1692) during the reign of Emperor Awrangzeb Alamgir (r. 1658-1707)

He worked very hard and sacrificed everything for us; may the Most Merciful shower His mercy on him.

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© Muhammad Mojlum Khan, 2008

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Revised Edition, 2021

The right of Muhammad Mojlum Khan to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Khan, Muhammad Mojlum

The Muslim 100: the lives, thoughts and achievements of the most influential Muslims in history

1. Muslims - Biography 2. Civilization, Islamic

3. Islamic countries - Civilization

297’.0922

ISBNs

978-1-84774-176-9 Paperback

978-1-84774-171-4 Hardback

978-1-84774-174-5 Ebook

Cover Design: Jannah Haque

Typesetting: LiteBook Prepress Services

Calligraphy: M. Swallay Mungly

Indexing: Abdassamad Clarke, Uthman Ibrahim-Morrison

Contents

AUTHOR’S PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

1. Prophet Muhammad

2. Umar ibn al-Khattab

3. Ali ibn Abi Talib

4. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq

5. Uthman ibn Affan

6. Aishah bint Abi Bakr

7. Khadijah bint Khuwaylid

8. Khalid ibn al-Walid

9. Husayn ibn Ali

10. Abu Hurairah

11. Fatimah bint Muhammad

12. Bilal ibn Rabah

13. Al-Bukhari

14. Abu Hanifah

15. Abul Hasan al-Ash’ari

16. Salah al-Din Ayyubi

17. Abu Hamid al-Ghazali

18. Al-Shafi’i

19. Al-Khwarizmi

20. Ahmad ibn Hanbal

21. Ibn Khaldun

22. Malik ibn Anas

23. Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

24. Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani

25. Ibn Sina

26. Ibn Taymiyyah

27. Nizam al-Mulk

28. Al-Kindi

29. Mu’awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan

30. Jalal al-Din Rumi

31. Harun al-Rashid

32. Abd al-Rahman I

33. Tariq ibn Ziyad

34. Sultan Muhammad II

35. Al-Biruni

36. Sulayman the Magnificent

37. Ja’far al-Sadiq

38. Abd al-Rahman III

39. Ibn Ishaq

40. Abdullah al-Ma’mun

41. Ibn Rushd

42. Timur the Conqueror

43. Akbar the Great

44. Al-Farabi

45. Al-Tabari

46. Ibn Battuta

47. Jabir ibn Hayyan

48. Mimar Sinan

49. Abu Bakr al-Razi

50. Hasan al-Basri

51. Ibn al-Haytham

52. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj

53. Mahmud of Ghazna

54. Muhammad ibn al-Qasim

55. Musa ibn Nusayr

56. Shah Jahan

57. Abul Hasan al-Mas’udi

58. Abul Qasim al-Zahrawi

59. Ibn al-Arabi

60. Umar Khayyam

61. Jamal al-Din ‘al-Afghani’

62. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab

63. Rabi’a al-Adawiyah

64. Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan

65. Al-Hallaj

66. Hasan al-Banna

67. Khwajah Naqshband

68. Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi

69. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi

70. Muhammad Ali Jinnah

71. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi

72. Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud

73. Mustafa Kemal ‘Ataturk’

74. Firdawsi of Persia

75. Mu’in al-Din Chishti

76. Nur al-Din Zangi

77. Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi

78. Ayatullah Khomeini

79. Awrangzeb Alamgir

80. Ibn Tufayl

81. Muhammad Ilyas

82. Sayyid Qutb

83. Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi

84. Muhammad Abduh

85. Sir Muhammad Iqbal

86. Abul Hasan al-Shadhili

87. Shah Waliullah

88. Shamyl of Daghestan

89. Abul A’la Mawdudi

90. Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi

91. Muhammad Yunus

92. Shaykh Sa’di of Shiraz

93. Sir Sayyid Ahmed ‘Khan Bahadur’

94. The Mahdi of Sudan

95. Al-Mutanabbi

96. Uthman Dan Fodio

97. Mulla Sadra

98. Malcolm X

99. Sa’id Nursi

100. Muhammad Ali

CONCLUSION

CHRONOLOGY OF ISLAMIC HISTORY

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX OF NAMES AND PLACES

INDEX OF SUBJECTS AND CONCEPTS

Author’s Preface

Most of this book was researched and written when I was still in my twenties. It was subsequently revised several times before being eventually published in 2008. I am grateful to Kube for publishing this book. I am delighted to say that the book has been received well, both in the United Kingdom and around the world. Soon after its publication, the prestigious Publishers Weekly in New York hailed it as of ‘immeasurable value [providing] succinct biographies with innovative insights’ and recommended the book to the public libraries in the United States and internationally. The New York Public Library also placed it number 2 on their list of ‘Best of 100’ for 2012. Likewise, in Saudi Arabia, the Haj and Umra Magazine (The Ministry of Hajj) reviewed the book and fully endorsed it, referring to it as being ‘bold’ and ‘encyclopaedic in its scope’, in addition to many other citations, references and reviews published in North America, Europe, Asia and the Far East.

Moreover, the book has been translated (fully or partially) into several languages including Bengali and Indonesian, as well as being turned into an audio book. It has inspired numerous projects and initiatives, both in the Muslim world and the West, including publication of Islamic history books; launch of Islamic history websites, individual and institutional research projects, and bestowed on me a prestigious fellowship from one of the oldest learned society’s in the United Kingdom. More recently, this book has been recommended as one of the best ‘Modern Islamic History’ books. I am delighted that so many people – students, scholars, historians and general readers alike – have found this book accessible, informative and invaluable. This also explains why the demand for the book has continued unabated.

Conversely, the book has had its fair share of critics. Some have argued that in a book of one hundred influential Muslims, individuals like Ataturk (chapter 73) and Emperor Akbar (chapter 43) should not have been included as they were not Muslims. Others felt that there were too many Sufis in the book while, yet others, contended that there were not enough of them. Some Sunni Muslims were unhappy that Khomeini [chapter 78] and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi [chapter 69] were included, while some Shi’a Muslims were unimpressed because Mu’awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan (chapter 29) was ranked higher than Ja’far al-Sadiq (chapter 37). Likewise, the Bengali nationalists were dismayed that Muhammad Yunus (chapter 91) was included at the expense of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (b. 1920-d. 1975). Some liberal-minded Muslims were appalled that Ibn Taymiyyah (chapter 26) and Ibn Abd al-Wahhab (chapter 62) were featured; while others were disappointed because Taqi al-Din Nabahani (b. 1914-d. 1977) was overlooked. Last but not least, some Muslim women argued – and with some justification – that there were not enough female figures in the book. In short, this book has managed to please and, at the same time, displease a lot of people! Mission accomplished!

Having said that, the debates and discussions that were generated by the book, not only in the West but also in the Muslim world, was much-needed and long over-due for the following reasons: firstly, for too long, discussions about Muslim history, culture and heritage had been confined within the academia, being the sole pre-occupation of historians and biographers, without receiving any worthwhile input from non-academics or the ordinary people. Secondly, the long tradition of one-dimensional and often hagiographical writings (such as Tabaqat al-Hanabila [Generations of Hanbalites], Tabaqat al-Hanafiya [Generations of Hanafites] or Tabaqat al-Sufiya [Generations of Sufis] had, wittingly or unwittingly, contributed to the gradual dilution and ossification of the Muslim literary mind, thought and culture.

Thirdly, the prevalence and proliferation of culturally partisan, intellectually inward-looking, religiously sectarian, and politically divisive ideas and thoughts around the Muslim world – especially in the Middle East, Persia and the Indo-Pak subcontinent – had inflicted untold chaos, damage and destruction across the Muslim ummah. Finally, Islamic history, culture and heritage is not only about the past, but also about the present and future. It was these considerations that prompted the writing and publication of this book. The intention was to promote a culture of understanding, respect and toleration based on well-informed, balanced and an inclusive approach to Muslim history and culture through the lives, thoughts and achievements of some of its most influential figures, deliberately avoiding a theological, legalistic or sectarian approach to, and interpretation of, the Islamic past and present. Why?

Because the Muslim world is nothing short of an extraordinary melting-pot of different races, cultures, geographies, languages, and ethnicities. Any simplistic approach, devoid of subtlety and nuance, will fail to understand and appreciate the social, political, economic, cultural and spiritual mosaic and tapestry that is the Muslim ummah, leading to further suspicion, confusion, division and misunderstandings. This book was meant to be a humble contribution towards a more holistic and inclusive approach to more than 14 centuries of Islamic history for the benefit of everyone, Muslims and non-Muslims, Easterners and Westerners, the present and future generations alike.

That is why I am delighted that Kube are reprinting the book. However, over the last decade or so, I went through the book several times and made copious notes, correcting and improving the whole manuscript. Why? Because learning is a life-long journey and all true seekers of knowledge never cease to learn. Why? Because knowledge is like a sea without any shores or a road without any signs, and the more you travel, the more you learn and discover. In fact, as I continued to read and improve the book during the last 12 years, it became very clear that knowledge is but an inexhaustible ocean, emanating as it does from the All-Knowing (al-Alı˜m), the All-Encompassing (al-Waasi’), the Source of all knowledge (‘ilm) and wisdom (hikma), transcending both time and space. Even after a whole lifetime devoted solely to learning, research and scholarship, we will only be scratching the surface! Alas, there is so much to learn, and so little time left!

Despite our efforts, there is no doubt that some minor errors, factual or otherwise, may still remain. For this, we can only apologise and request forgiveness for our shortcomings. As the great polymath, Murtaza al-Husayni al-Zabidi (b. 1732-d. 1790) pointed out, even the finest of horses can stumble, the most accomplished athletes can falter; it is easy to criticise than compose, especially a wide-ranging book like this one; it is also easy to pontificate and pick holes than think out-of-the-box and write a new and challenging book; not copied or translated from others. If you think you can do better, then go ahead and do it; this is my challenge to my critics!

Finally, heartfelt thanks are due to Kube Publishing, especially its Director, Haris Ahmad, and all his colleagues for their co-operation and contribution. As for my family, it would not have been possible to revise and improve the book without their help and support. I pray for everyone’s good health, wellbeing and prosperity, especially during the current crisis, not only in this country but globally. ‘For truly with hardship comes ease! Indeed, with hardship comes ease! So, when you have completed (your pre-occupation), devote yourself to His service. And to your Sustainer, turn (all your) hopes and intentions.’ (Qur’an, Surat ash-Sharh [94], verses 5-8)

M. M. Khan

Fellow, The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland

Member, The Royal Historical Society

Introduction

EDMUND BURKE (b. 1729-d. 1797), the renowned Irish philosopher and statesman, once said, ‘People will not look forward to posterity, who never look backward to their ancestors.’ Likewise, Aldous L. Huxley (b. 1894- d. 1963), the acclaimed English philosopher and novelist, wrote, ‘That men do not learn very much from the lessons of history is the most important of all the lessons that history has to teach.’ But what actually is history? Abd al-Rahman ibn Khaldun (b. 1332-d. 1406), the father of the philosophy of history, wrote in his famous Muqaddimah fi’l Ta’rikh (Introduction to History), ‘History is a discipline that has a great number of approaches. Its useful aspects are very many. Its goal is distinguished. History makes us acquainted with the conditions of past nations as they are reflected in their national character. It makes us acquainted with the biographies of the prophets and with the dynasties and policies of rulers. Whoever so desires may thus achieve the useful result of being able to imitate historical examples in religious and worldly matters. The (writing of history) requires numerous sources and much varied knowledge.’

Few historians would disagree with Ibn Khaldun that writing history requires ‘numerous sources and much varied knowledge.’ I became fascinated by history, especially Islamic history, when I was in my early teens. To me the past is as important as the present, because without a proper understanding of the past we are unlikely to understand our present condition, and without a proper understanding of the present we will not be able to shape our future. Our past, present and future are therefore inter-connected and interdependent. Indeed, I would go so far as to say that our past is more important than our future, because we cannot control and shape our future if we are not aware of our past. Therefore, knowing and understanding our history is not optional: it is a necessity. It is also true that the ancient Greek historians such as Herodotus of Halicarnassus (b. cir. 484- d. cir. 425/413BCE) and Thucydides of Athens (b. cir. 460-d. cir. 400 BCE) wrote history as if history was no more than the unfolding of a sequence of events.

Like them, the early Muslim chroniclers such as Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri (b. 820-d. 892), Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (b. 839-d. 923) and Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Isfahani (b. 897-d. 967) also considered history to be a sequence of events. However, other Muslim historians like Abul Hasan al-Mas’udi (b. 896-d. 956), Abul Hasan Ali ibn al-Athir (b. 1160-d. 1233) and Ibn Khaldun took a more logical and critical approach to history. The latter in particular sought to explore and identify the underlying causes or factors which triggered the sequence of events in the first place. That is why Ibn Khaldun considered history and philosophy to be two sides of the same coin. Therefore, in order to understand and fully appreciate history, he felt an understanding of philosophy was required and vice versa.

However, there is another group of historians who consider history to be no more than a play- ground for prominent peoples and personalities: as Ralph Waldo Emerson (b. 1803- d. 1882), a noted American philosopher said, ‘There is properly no history: only biography.’ This view was reinforced by the German philosopher Friedrich W. Nietzsche (b. 1844-d. 1900) who stated that history was no more than ‘His-story’. The proponents of this view are more concerned with the ‘actors’ (history-makers), rather than the actions (the sequence of events or historical process as such). However, from an Islamic perspective history is not merely a sequence of events, nor is it entirely a playground for influential people and personalities; it is both of these things and more. Indeed, the Qur’anic approach to history is integrative, holistic and comprehensive in the sense that it acknowledges the role played by ‘creative personalities’ (as Sir Arnold J. Toynbee [b. 1889-d. 1975] put it), natural causes or phenomena, and also direct Divine intervention in the process of history.

Thus, according to the Qur’an, history is neither entirely pre-ordained nor wholly deterministic, like the Marxist and Hegelian notions of history and historical change. On the contrary, it says, ‘Surely, God will not change the condition of a people until they change their own condition.’ (13:11) and, ‘God is on the side of those who fear Him, and do good.’ (16:128). Likewise, the Qur’an argues (see, for instance, Surah Hud verse 114) that the historical process is much more than a rigid chain of ‘cause and effect’ – unlike the views advanced by historians like Oswald A. G. Spengler (b. 1880-d. 1936). Instead, the notion of selectivity on the basis of moral imperative is central to the Qur’anic concept of historical change. ‘God’, says the Qur’an ‘will not leave the believers in the condition in which they are until He separates the wrongdoers from those who are righteous.’ (3:179)

Thus, in addition to time-space factors and the moral imperative, direct Divine intervention (whether in the form of reward or punishment) is also an integral part of the Qur’anic understanding of history and historical change. ‘Say: He has power to send calamities on you, from above and below, or to cover you with confusion in party strife, giving you a taste of mutual vengeance – each from the other.’ (6:65) and, ‘The reward of God is best for those who believe and work righteousness: but this none shall attain, save those who steadfastly persevere.’ (28:80)

From the above discussion, it is clear that the Qur’anic concept of history, unlike the modern Western philosophies of history, is not only an integrative and multi-dimensional one, but is also based on a profound understanding of human nature and its possibilities. To his credit, Ibn Khaldun understood and appreciated this multi-layered approach to history, as is evident from his pioneering Muqaddimah fi’l Ta’rikh. Inspired by Ibn Khaldun and others, Arnold J. Toynbee also pursued a similar approach to history in his voluminous, A Study of History (1934-1961), but ultimately his notion of history was dominated by the Christian idea of a ‘saviour’ rather than the Qur’anic view of man and his role and purpose in the universe.

‘And remember Abraham was tried by his Lord with certain commands, which he fulfilled: He said, I will make you a leader to the nations. He pleaded, And also (leaders) from my offspring! He answered, But My promise is not within the reach of the wrong-doers.’ (2:124). And ‘(remember) Noah, when he cried (to Us) aforetime: We listened to his (prayer) and delivered him and his family from great distress…And remember David and Solomon, when they gave judgement in the matter of the field into which the sheep of certain people had strayed by night: We did witness their judgement…And (remember) Job, when he cried to his Lord, Truly distress has seized me, but You are the Most Merciful of those that are merciful.…And (remember) Ishmael, Enoch and Dhul-kifl, all (men) of constancy and patience…And remember Zun-nun (Jonah)…And (remember) Zachariah…And (remember) her (Mary) who guarded her chastity: We breathed into her of Our Spirit, and We made her and her son (Jesus) a sign for all peoples.’ (21:76-91). In short, according to the Qur’an, the main purpose of history is to remind us of who we are, what our role and purpose is, and to learn lessons from the past.

If understanding human nature and our role and purpose within the Divine scheme of things is central to the Qur’anic view of history, then how should one explore and analyse Islamic history? And, indeed, what actually do we mean by Islamic history? Strictly speaking, Islamic history did not begin with the Prophet Muhammad or with Abraham or Ishmael (Isma’il). Rather, according to Islamic tradition, Adam was the first human being and also the first Muslim. Not surprisingly, the classical Islamic historians (such as al-Tabari, Ibn al-Athir and Ibn Kathir [1301-1373]) began their works with Adam and covered the careers of all other prominent Prophets and Kings – including Noah (Nuh), Abraham (Ibrahim), Moses (Musa), David (Dawud), Solomon (Sulayman), John the Baptist (Yahya) and Jesus (Isa) – all the way down to Prophet Muhammad, who is considered to be the Seal of Prophecy (khatim al-anbiya).

Since these and all other prophets are regarded as Muslims, the history of the whole of humanity was considered by the classical Muslim chroniclers and historians to be nothing other than the unfolding of Islamic history in its broadest sense. However, with regard to their methodology and approach, the vast majority of the classical and modern Muslim historians have explored Islamic history in a chronological way, without necessarily analysing their data and information in a rigorous and systematic manner.

This book, however, begins with the advent of the Prophet Muhammad and ends in our own time. Additionally, I have not adopted a chronological approach to the study of Islamic history. Instead, in this book an attempt has been made to explore Islamic history through the lives, thoughts and achievements of one hundred of the most influential Muslims. Influence, based on their contributions and achievements, was therefore my main criterion for selection and inclusion in this book. But this raises an interesting question, namely how the nature and extent of each person’s influence was to be measured?

I began by examining their lives and thoughts, and then proceeded to assess the nature of their contribution by evaluating what they actually did and what was so special or extraordinary about their deeds, actions and accomplishments. In so doing, I was able to determine whether their contributions and achievements had made them national, regional or international figures. Against this I could evaluate the intellectual, social, political, economic or cultural importance, value and impact of their contributions and achievements over time. For example, by pursuing this approach I was able to include Muhammad Yunus (the great Bangladeshi economist, banker and the pioneer of the system of micro-credit) in this book, but exclude Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (b. 1920-d. 1975, the founding father of Bangladesh) since the latter’s accomplishment has been largely ‘national’ or, at best, ‘regional’, while the former is today widely considered to be an important ‘international’ figure whose contribution and achievement has become ‘global’, thanks to the increasing popularity of micro-credit across the world.

Likewise, in the field of hadith literature, both Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (b. 1372-1449) and Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (1233-1277) were two remarkable figures, and it is not surprising that today they are highly regarded by the scholars of Islam, but it is also a fact that the works of the latter are much more widely known throughout the Muslim world and in the West than those of the former. In fact, al-Nawawi’s Kitab al-Arba’in (Book of Forty hadith) and Riyadh as-Saliheen (Garden of the Righteous) have not only been translated into all the world’s prominent languages, but they are also very popular across the globe. Consequently, I had no choice but to include al-Nawawi in this book and exclude Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani – despite being a big fan of the latter. In short, the one hundred people who feature in this book have been chosen and ranked on the basis of their all-round influence, which in turn was determined mainly – though not entirely – by their contributions and achievements.

And although I have tried to be logical, critical and also fair and objective in my approach to, and exploration of, the lives, thoughts and achievements of all the people included in this book, I am aware that my method of selection and ranking may nonetheless generate some discussion and debate among scholars and lay people, Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Since one of the aims of this book is to popularise Islamic culture and history, and encourage both Muslims and non-Muslims to directly engage with Islamic thought and culture, I will feel my efforts have been duly rewarded if this book manages to generate some discussion and debate about the role played by some of the Muslim world’s most influential figures and personalities during more than fourteen centuries of Islamic history.

Issues of selection and ranking aside, exploring Islamic history through the lives of some of its most influential figures – whether that is ten people, fifty, or a hundred – does present a number of other challenges and difficulties. Not least of which was that I underestimated the amount of time, effort and energy that would be required to survey more than fourteen hundred years of Islamic history, beginning with the birth of the Prophet Muhammad and ending in our own time.

Additionally, given the multi-disciplinary nature of this book, I not only had to explore a large quantity of historical data and information; it was also necessary to acquire some understanding of ilm al-kalam (Islamic theology), tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis), hadith literature, falsafah (including Neoplatonism and Peripatetic philosophy), fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), usul al-fiqh (science of Islamic jurisprudence), tasawwuf (Sufism or mysticism), aspects of science, mathematics, Arabic literature, Persian poetry, Asian history and culture, heresiographical thought and architectural history among other subjects. What was even more difficult was selecting only a hundred people from the hundreds, if not thousands, of prominent and influential Muslims who have left their indelible marks in the annals of history. As one of the world’s great religions, Islam created a dazzling culture and civilisation which today extends from Morocco in North Africa, all the way to Indonesia in the Far East, from Yemen in the Arabian Peninsula to Uzbekistan in Central Asia, and from Bosnia-Herzegovina in Europe to Xinjiang in Northwest China.

Thus, consisting of more than fifty-five Muslim majority countries and over 1.8 billion people today, Muslims have left their fingerprints on every field of human endeavour. It is not surprising, therefore, that some of history’s most influential men and women have been Muslims. In the words of George A. L. Sarton (1884-1956), a renowned historian of science and author of Introduction to the History of Science (1927-1948),

‘The main task of mankind was accomplished by Muslims. The greatest philosopher, al-Farabi, was a Muslim; the greatest mathematicians, Abu Kamil and Ibrahim ibn Sinan, were Muslims; the greatest geographer and encyclopaedist, al-Mas’udi, was a Muslim; the greatest historian, al-Tabari, was still a Muslim.’

This book only briefly explores the lives, thoughts and achievements of one hundred such influential Muslim men and women. It should also be pointed out that Islamic scholars and historians have written extensively about most of the people covered in this book, so the readers should not take these biographies as the final word on the lives and thoughts of the people included here. Rather, I hope, this book will encourage and inspire the readers to pursue their own study and research into Islamic thought, history, culture and civilisation.

Due to geographical, cultural, intellectual and historical overlaps, it was not possible to avoid some repetition. Hopefully, the readers will understand and appreciate why this was unavoidable as they go through the book. I went to great lengths to avoid using unnecessary jargon and technical language, but in some places this was unavoidable (for instance, when discussing aspects of theology, philosophy or mysticism). In addition, all the chapters begin with an introductory statement which seeks to place the personality concerned within their socio-political or cultural context and I have ensured that all the entries are of roughly equal length. In order to simplify things, only the Gregorian dates have been provided within the main text of the book, but I have included their hijri (Islamic) equivalent in the chronology at the end of the book. Since the hijri year consists of twelve lunar months of 29 or 30 days each, the Islamic calendar is about 11 days shorter than its Gregorian equivalent; thus, the converted dates – as they appear in the chronology – are approximate.

Again, for the sake of simplicity, I have not used any diacritics except for such common words and names like the Qur’an, Mu’tazilah, al-Ash’ari and al-Ma’mun. Likewise, I have completely avoided footnotes because this book is aimed primarily at students and general readers, although researcher and scholars may also find it useful and informative. Most of the sources (both primary and secondary) are listed in the select bibliography. Nearly all the Arabic words and titles of books cited within the text have been translated into English for the benefit of the readers. Moreover, according to Islamic custom, when the name of the Prophet Muhammad is mentioned, the words sallallahu alaihi wasallam (peace and blessing of God be upon him) should be added. When the name of any other Prophet is mentioned, the words alaihis salam (peace be upon him) should be added. When the name of a male companion of the Prophet is mentioned, the words radiAllahu anhu (God be pleased with him) should be added. And, finally, when the name of a female companion of the Prophet is mentioned, the words radiAllahu anha (God be pleased with her) should be added. All Muslim readers are reminded to observe this Islamic custom, as I have not included these customary salutations within the main text of the book for the sake of brevity and simplicity.

My studies concerning Islamic thought, history, culture and civilisation have occupied me for more than thirty years now, since I was about thirteen, and unquestionably this book could not have been written without the sources listed in the select bibliography. I am extremely grateful to the authors, editors, translators and publishers of these and other books and articles I have read and should anything I say in this book appear in any way similar to their ideas and thoughts, it is because I have drawn my information from them. The first draft of this book was completed in November 2005, exactly a month before my thirty-second birthday, but due to a heavy workload it was not possible to thoroughly check and revise the manuscript at the time. However, during 2006 I revised the manuscript several times, and the final revision was completed in August 2007. And, given the nature and size of this book, it is possible that some errors have escaped my attention and scrutiny. Thus, should anyone spot any factual inaccuracies or errors, I would be grateful if they could write to the publisher so that the errors can be rectified in any future edition of this book.

Finally, I need to thank a number of people. Firstly, I am grateful to late Professor Dr. Muhammad Abdul Jabbar Beg (1944-2014), who was a distinguished Islamic historian and a prolific writer, for thoroughly reading a draft version of this book and making numerous corrections and suggestions for improvement. I am indebted to Mawlana Mohammed Mushfiqur Rahman (who specialised in hadith literature at al-Azhar University) and Hafiz Abdullah Muhammad (a writer and Islamic researcher) for reading a draft version of this book and providing valuable feedback. Likewise, I am grateful to Ahmed J. Versi, the editor of The Muslim News (a leading British Muslim newspaper), for not only reading this book and making some useful and interesting comments, but also for encouraging me to contribute regularly for his esteemed newspaper for nearly 25 years. Late Rod Bushell agreed to thoroughly check the whole manuscript and, in the process, he had raised numerous queries and questions which enabled me to clarify many issues and further improve and enhance the book.

My wife has been a source of blessing since our marriage over 22 years ago. Without her support, encouragement and tolerance, this book could not have been written. At times I studied for more than twelve hours a day, but she accepted and tolerated my excesses and absent-mindedness; may the Almighty reward her most abundantly. As for my two sons, Muhtadi and Mustafa, I am glad that both of them have found the book to be of much benefit. Likewise, my sister Sabia helped produce the chronology, and Motin and Shelina assisted in so many other ways. My mother was keen for me to finish the book so I could take some rest. I am also grateful to Yahya Birt, formerly Commissioning Editor, and all his colleagues at Kube Publishing for their constructive criticism, suggestions and contributions.

Ultimately, however, my success in my task can only come from Him; the One and Only (al-Ahad). Blessed is His Name and salutation (salawat) upon His most beloved (al-Habib al-Mustafa), the light by whom others are guided to the Light (al-Nur), and to Him is our final return.

1 Prophet Muhammad (b.570 - d.632)

HE WAS BORN an orphan and was brought up in the Arabian village of Ta’if (now a city located in the southwest of Saudi Arabia). He was subsequently raised in the town of Makkah by his extended family. He worked as a shepherd and a merchant, and never set a foot inside a school or college and was known to have been ummi, or an unlettered man. He came to be known to his fellow countrymen for his absolute honesty, impeccable character and strong sense of justice and fair play – so much so that they fondly called him al-amin (the trustworthy) and al-sadiq (the truthful). He led a hitherto uneventful life without in any way showing the signs of the great man that he was to be. Arabia was not necessarily known for rearing men of universal appeal and renown. His birth put an end to that drought and, for the first time in their history, the Arab descendants of the great patriarch, Abraham (Ibrahim), had something they could truly celebrate: the birth of the most influential man ever to walk on the earth. His name means the ‘praiseworthy one’.

To some Arabs, history actually began in 570, the year in which their greatest son was born into the noble Makkan tribe of Quraysh. A direct descendant of Ishmael (Isma’il ), the father of the Semitic Arab race, he single-handedly dragged the Arab people from being a footnote of human history to be the founders of one of history’s greatest civilisations. More importantly, he accomplished such an unprecedented feat without any wherewithal. Caesar (b. cir. 100-d. 44 BCE) had the pomp and power of Rome; Alexander (b. 356-d. 323BCE) had a mighty army; Heraclius (b. cir. 575-d. 64ICE) had immense wealth and resources, while Napoleon (b. 1769-d. 1821) was trained at a military academy; but he had none of these things. He started with nothing but ended up with the whole world. That was the greatness of the man called Muhammad, history’s most incomparable religious- cum-political genius.

Living in seventh century Arabia, Muhammad became increasingly detached from the superstitious beliefs and practices of his people. He began to explore and take a closer interest in spiritual matters by secluding himself on the Mount of Light (jabal al-nur), situated on the outskirts of the Arabian town of Makkah, for meditation and spiritual renewal. As political corruption, social inequality, economic disparity between the poor and rich, and religious superstition and tribal conflict increasingly became the order of the day in Makkah and across Arabia, Muhammad began to search for serious answers to his society’s maladies. As he approached his fortieth birthday, his meditation and retreat on the Mount of Light intensified and reached its climax during one night in the month of Ramadan, which resulted in a direct visitation from archangel Gabriel ( Jibril ), conveying to him the first of a series of Divine revelations, which he continued to receive until his death in 632.

The angel confirmed that he, Muhammad, was God’s last and final Prophet (nabi) to humanity and the Qur’an, consisting of one hundred and fourteen chapters (suwar) of variable length, was God’s last and final revelation (wahy) to mankind. This Divine intervention in history marked the beginning of Muhammad’s Prophetic mission. The result was that Islam – meaning submission to the Will of One God (Allah in Arabic) – completely transformed Muhammad, and he went out to invite his fellow countrymen to the worship of One God. From that day on, the promulgation and propagation of Islam became his main preoccupation in life.

As soon as the Prophet publicly announced the message of Islam, some, especially those who had suffered hardship under the oppressive rule of the Makkan oligarchy, responded positively to his call. However, the ruling Makkan elites became very hostile and abusive towards Muhammad as soon as the implication of his new message became clear to them. In a fiercely feudalistic, tribally entrenched and paternalistic Makkan society, the message of Islam advocated the need for a different approach to politics, social justice, economics and human spirituality. Indeed, in a grossly unjust and unfair Makkah (and Arabian society as a whole), the Prophet’s message of freedom, equality, justice, fair play and brotherhood was nothing short of a breath of fresh air.

Not surprisingly, the status quo maintained and perpetuated by a handful of tribal chieftains in order to protect their own politico-economic interests soon came under direct threat from Islam. Thus, the Prophet and his message became the main target of their hostility and enmity. Undaunted by the severity of the hardship and hostility directed towards him and his small band of followers, Muhammad continued to proclaim the message of Islam in and around Makkah for more than a decade.

In 622, the Prophet was invited by a delegation from the nearby oasis of Yathrib to move to their city. The Prophet accepted their offer and moved to Yathrib, which later became known as madinat al-nabi (or the ‘city of the Prophet’). The Prophet’s migration to Madinah (hijrah) thus became a momentous event in Islamic history. The Islamic calendar, known as the Hijri calendar, is dated back to the day the Prophet left his native Makkah for Madinah. In this beautiful Arabian oasis, the Prophet received a hero’s welcome, as its inhabitants came out in their droves and pledged allegiance to him by embracing Islam. From that day on, Madinah became a very special place for all Muslims; and it also became the hub of Islamic learning, culture and civilisation for all times to come.

When the Makkan chiefs were informed about the Prophet’s success in Madinah, they became very shocked and alarmed. Having tried to undermine him and his mission in Makkah and failed most miserably, they now conspired to create unrest in Madinah by setting factions of hypocrites, rival tribes of pagans, Jews and the new ‘immigrants’ (muhajirun) from Makkah against each other. But, thanks to the Prophet’s polished diplomatic skills, their strategies came to nothing. Undeterred, the Makkan chieftains then marched to Madinah with a large contingent in order to obliterate the nascent Muslim community. The Prophet and his small band of followers met the advancing Makkan army at the plain of Badr, located on the outskirts of Madinah. More than one thousand strong, the well-equipped Makkan army fought just over three hundred ill-equipped and unprepared Muslims. Miraculously, the Prophet and his followers inflicted a crushing defeat on their Makkan foes. The Muslims returned to Madinah in elation, while the Makkan army returned home in total disarray.

Determined to avenge their humiliation, the unrelenting Makkan chiefs attempted to obliterate the Muslims on a few other occasions, but they failed to breach the stiff defence put up by the Muslims. Demoralised by their failure to wipe out the Muslims, the Makkans were eventually forced to agree to a treaty with the Prophet and make peace. Even though the terms and conditions of the treaty were biased in favour of the Makkans, the Prophet agreed to sign it, despite protestations from some of his companions. This was a shrewd move on his part because this period of peace gave the people of Makkah the opportunity to see Islam in action in Madinah for the first time. During their journeys to Madinah, the Makkans saw a society utterly transformed. The Prophet had turned a warring and bitterly divided oasis into a thriving civil society.

For the first time in its history, tribal factionalism, social injustice, economic inequality, political oppression, physical torture and abuse, maltreatment of women and cruelty towards slaves were no longer the order of the day in Madinah. On the contrary, brotherhood and fraternity between the believers; love, understanding and co-operation between kith and kin; respect for the rights of women; freeing of slaves and an unrivalled interest in learning and education became the key features of the new society created by the Prophet only a few hundred miles away from Makkah. This unparalleled transformation of a tribal society and its people’s hearts, minds, thoughts, morals and customs was accomplished by the Prophet and done so within a matter of a decade.

Muhammad led the people of Madinah by his personal example. He did not say one thing and do another. Whether it was in the intense heat of the battlefield or during prayers in the mosque; during the daylight or in the middle of the night; at times of hunger and hardship or in times of happiness and joy, he was at the forefront of everything. The people of Madinah became so fond of him that they meticulously moulded their actions, behaviour and even their style of dressing, eating, drinking and sleeping in accordance with the Prophet’s norms and practices. To them, the Prophet Muhammad was simply al-insan al-kamil (or ‘the perfect human being’). Such unfailing love and devotion shown to their leader by a people was not only unheard of, but it was also unprecedented in the annals of history.

In the year 630, the Prophet and a large contingent of his devout followers marched into Makkah, the city of his birth, without a single drop of blood being shed. On seeing him enter Makkah, the people of the city came out in their droves and pledged allegiance to him by embracing Islam. The Prophet’s most inveterate opponent, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb (b. 560-d. 652), was, however, offered protection by none other than the Prophet’s uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (b. 568-d. 652). Typical of the Prophet, on entering Makkah he announced that anyone who took shelter in the courtyard of the sacred Ka’bah, in the house of Abu Sufyan, or remained indoors would be safe. Even Abu Sufyan knew when Muhammad made a promise, he would stick to it come what might. The next morning, accompanied by Abbas, he went straight to the Prophet and most willingly pledged allegiance to him. The Prophet forgave him for his persistent past misdeeds and told him that he was free to go about his business as a free man. This was an extraordinary act of clemency and compassion. Hitherto, Abu Sufyan had been unrelenting in his pursuit of the Prophet and his followers, but Muhammad chose to forgive and forget rather than seek retribution. That was the quality and greatness of the man called ‘a mercy to the universe’ (rahmatun lil alamin).

With the conversion of Makkah and its neighbouring towns to the fold of Islam, the Prophet accomplished a feat never achieved by an Arab before him, namely, to unite the constantly bickering and rival Arabian tribes under the banner of a common denominator. That common denominator was Islam, which transcended all tribal affiliations and internal factionalism, as it collectively channelled the Arabs’ might and energy in one direction, namely the dissemination of Islam, and in so doing they transformed the course of human history forever. Muhammad, the Prophet par excellence and the Qur’an, the Divine revelation, thus combined to inspire the Muslims of Arabia to achieve the unprecedented success which they subsequently achieved.

In just over two decades, Muhammad radically transformed a hitherto neglected, barren and primitive Arabian Peninsula into a thriving centre of learning, culture, commerce and civilisation. By all accounts, this was a truly remarkable achievement, unprecedented not only in Arab history, but also global history. As he approached his sixtieth birthday, he knew his mission was drawing to an end. In the tenth year of the hijrah, the Prophet performed his farewell pilgrimage and delivered one of the most powerful, eloquent and inspiring sermons ever composed by a religious leader. Standing on the plain of Arafat in front of around one hundred and twenty thousand people, he began by praising and thanking God, and said:

‘O people, lend me an attentive ear for I do not know whether, after this year, I would meet you again. Therefore, listen to what I am saying to you very carefully and take these words to those who could not be present here today. O people, just as you regard this month; this day; this city as sacred, so regard the life and property of every Muslim as a sacred trust. Return the goods entrusted to you to their rightful owners. Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you. Remember that you will indeed appear before God and answer for your actions. All dues of interest shall stand cancelled and you will have only your capital back; God has forbidden interest. You will neither inflict, nor suffer, inequity…’

‘Beware of Shaytan (Satan) for the safety of your religion. He has lost all hope that he will ever be able to lead you astray in great things, so beware of following him in small things. O people, your wives have a certain right over you, and you have certain rights over them. Treat them well and be kind to them, for they are your partners and committed helpers. And it is your right that they do not make friends with anyone who you do not like as well as never be unchaste.’

‘O people, listen to me carefully! Worship God, perform your five daily prayers (salah), fast the month of Ramadan (sawm), pay alms (zakat) and make the pilgrimage (hajj) if you can afford it. All humanity is from Adam and Eve. There is no superiority for an Arab over a non-Arab, nor for a non-Arab over an Arab; a white man over a black man, nor for a black man over a white man, except through piety (taqwa). All the believers are brothers, and the believers constitute one nation. You are not allowed to take the things belonging to another Muslim unless he gives it to you willingly. Do not, therefore, do injustice to yourselves.’

‘O people, reflect on my words. Remember, one day you will appear before God and answer for your deeds. So beware, do not stray from the path of righteousness after I am gone. O people, be mindful of those who work under you. Feed and clothe them as you feed and clothe yourselves. O people, no prophet or messenger will come after me and no new faith will be born. Reason well, therefore, O people, and understand the words that I convey to you. I leave behind me two things: the Qur’an and my example (sunnah), and if you follow these you will not go stray. All those who listen to me shall pass on my words to others and those to others again; and may the last ones understand my words better than those who listen to me directly. Be my witness, O God, that I have conveyed Your message to Your people.’

The Prophet Muhammad was an outstanding orator and a master of succinctness. He spoke only when required and did so in a brief but comprehensive manner. This sermon illustrates how beautiful and unsurpassed his oratory and communication skills were. Although he was unlettered, he could nevertheless communicate with both men and women, young and aged, lettered as well as the unlettered in a masterly fashion. Even his critics admired his sound logic, sharp intellect, organisational ability and his down-to-earth approach. He was neither extreme, nor too lax in his words or deeds; instead, he preached and practiced moderation in everything. Whenever he was given an option between two things, he always chose the easy option and encouraged his companions to make religion easy for the people. According to his wife, Aishah, he was a ‘walking Qur’an’ who was very kind and generous to those around him, and personified angelic qualities and attributes.

With the successful completion of his mission, the Prophet returned to Madinah where he passed away at the age of sixty-three. The Prophet Muhammad’s achievements are so varied and extensive that it would require a separate book to fully document them. He was an unusually gifted man who radically transformed the course of human history by the sheer dint of his unique character and powerful personality. Today, more than fourteen hundred years after his death, his powerful message and teachings continue to influence mankind’s journey in tune with the march of time. No other single human being has been able to influence our minds, thoughts, ideas and destinies like him. That is why Prophet Muhammad is not only the greatest Muslim; he was also the most influential man ever to walk on the earth.

2 Umar ibn al-Khattab (b.ca.581 - d.644)

AFTER THE PROPHET MUHAMMAD, Umar is undoubtedly the most influential and enduring figure in Islamic history. Strong, charismatic, firm but equally just; fair as well as a leader par excellence, gifted men like Umar are a very rare breed in human history. As an exceptional all-rounder, Umar was blessed with outstanding abilities in all spheres of human endeavour. Indeed, the Prophet Muhammad said if there was to be another prophet after him, it would surely have been Umar. The Prophet aside, Umar’s achievements are second to none in Islamic history. That is why today Muslims in every corner of the earth are praying for a leader like Umar to emerge and guide the ummah (global Islamic community) through the turbulent waters of history.

Umar ibn al-Khattab ibn Nufail ibn Abd al-Uzza was born into the Adi branch of the Qurayshi tribe of Makkah. Of medium height and muscular build, he was an accomplished wrestler in his pre-Islamic days. He was also a forceful orator and one of only a handful of Qurayshis who knew how to read and write at that time. Umar grew up to be an honest and likeable young man who became a relatively successful merchant and trader during his early twenties. After Muhammad announced his Prophethood, Umar became a persistent thorn in the Prophet’s side. He actively discouraged people from embracing the new faith and never hesitated to attack those who ignored his advice. When it became transparent that the Prophet would not stop preaching Islam, the ruling elites of Quraysh decided to assassinate Muhammad. The indomitable Umar volunteered for the task. Everyone present at the meeting agreed that Umar was the best man for the job because he was brave, bold and well known for his fighting skills. Umar returned home to collect his sword and immediately set out in search of the Prophet.

On his way he bumped into Nu’aim ibn Abdullah who asked him where he was going. Umar told him he was out to exterminate the Prophet. But why would he want to commit such a heinous crime, reasoned Nu’aim. Umar explained how the Prophet and his message had set father against son, and brother against brother within Makkah. By doing away with the Prophet, he hoped to put an end to all the bitterness and hostility. As it happens, Nu’aim had already embraced Islam and was determined to dissuade Umar from his potentially disastrous mission, but Umar was equally determined to carry out his task. Nu’aim realised the gravity of the situation and told Umar to set his own house in order first. It transpired that Umar’s own sister, Fatimah, and her husband had already secretly embraced Islam. This news shocked Umar and hurt his pride. He immediately turned around and headed for his sister’s house. She was studying the Qur’an at the time with her husband. As soon as the door was opened, Umar landed a mighty blow on his brother-in-law. In the ensuing scuffle, he managed to land a blow on his sister, and she began to bleed profusely. He was visibly shaken to see his sister’s blood on his hand. He demanded to see the verses they were reciting. She bluntly told him that only the purified are permitted to touch the Divine revelation. When he returned after purifying himself, she gave him the parchment on which the Qur’anic verses were inscribed, and he began to read:

‘Ta Ha. It was not to distress you that We sent down the Qur’an to you, but as a reminder for those who hold God in awe, a revelation from the One Who created the earth and the high heaven, the Lord of Mercy, established on the Throne. Everything in the heavens and earth, everything between them, everything beneath the soil, belongs to him. Whatever you may say aloud, He knows what you keep secret and what is even more hidden. God – there is no god but Him – the most excellent names belong to Him.’ (Surat Ta-Ha, verses 1-8)

As Umar continued to read, the expression on his face began to change. What he had just recited was neither poetry nor prose; it surpassed both. As a literate man, one of a handful in Makkah at the time, Umar knew in his heart of hearts that an illiterate man like Muhammad could not possibly have composed such beautiful and elegant words. He was convinced that it was Divine revelation. He demanded to be taken to Muhammad to pledge allegiance to the Prophet. From that day on, Umar became a powerful champion of Islam. Although he was still in his late twenties at the time of his conversion, Umar’s coming to Islam delighted the Prophet and his small band of followers because he was a forceful and indomitable character who was destined to play a legendary role in the annals of Islam. In the tribal Arab culture of the time, it was very common to strengthen friendships through marriage. Although the Prophet held Umar in high esteem for his devotion and dedication to Islam, he later consolidated his friendship with Umar by marrying his daughter, Hafsah (b. 605-d. 665). The Prophet thus became his son-in-law and Umar, in turn, became the Prophet’s right-hand man for the rest of his life.

After the death of the Prophet in 632, Umar was the first person to pledge his loyalty to Abu Bakr al-Siddiq as the Prophet’s successor, and the people of Madinah followed suit. Abu Bakr was duly elected khalifat rasul Allah (or ‘successor to the Messenger of God’) and he became the ruler of the Islamic State. Thanks to Umar’s quick thinking, sharp intellect, powerful personality and standing within the early Muslim community, a potentially damaging succession battle was avoided, and a smooth transition of leadership was achieved. The pivotal role played by Umar in this first major challenge faced by the early Muslims soon after the Prophet’s death was a testament to his clear vision, organisational ability and greatness, even if the majority of Islamic historians have failed to appreciate the importance of the role played by Umar at this critical juncture in Islamic history.

During the two years and three months of Caliph Abu Bakr’s reign, Umar played the indispensable role of being an advisor, strategist and close confidant After the Prophet, Abu Bakr was clearly the most insightful Muslim, and he knew Umar very well and trusted him more than anyone else. Lying on his deathbed, Abu Bakr called all the leading figures of the early Muslim community to a consultative (shura) meeting. He told them he wished to nominate Umar as his successor. No one present at the meeting raised any objection against Abu Bakr’s proposal. Umar was a dominant figure among the companions of the Prophet. He was well known for his sacrifices for Islam, and everyone admired his sense of justice. In the circumstances, Abu Bakr felt he was the best person to lead the Muslim community. History bears testimony to the quality of Abu Bakr’s wisdom and choice.

In 634, at the age of fifty-three, Umar assumed the leadership of the early Islamic State and ruled for just over a decade. During this period, Umar was able to achieve what others failed to achieve in a lifetime. With Umar in charge at Madinah, Muslims burst out of Arabia and overwhelmed the mighty Persian and Holy Roman Empires like a thunderbolt from heaven. In 638, the Muslim army conquered Jerusalem and the great Caliph himself went there to sign the peace treaty with the people of that historic city. As he approached Jerusalem, the people of the city could not believe what they were witnessing, for one of the great rulers of the time was proceeding into their city on foot, while his aide was riding the camel. When the aide offered to forgo his turn to ride the camel in favour of the Caliph, the latter refused the offer saying, The honour of Islam is enough for us. When the time for prayer arrived, the Bishop of Jerusalem invited Caliph Umar to offer his prayer inside the Cathedral, but he politely refused. He did not want to give anyone an excuse for turning the Cathedral into a mosque in the future, he told an astounded Bishop. Clearly taken aback by Umar’s grace, humility and tolerance, the Bishop offered him space outside the Cathedral where Umar led the faithful in prayers.

During the ten incredible years of his reign, he never forgot Caliph Abu Bakr’s last words of advice to him: ‘O Umar! Always fear God. An optional deed is not accepted unless the obligatory deed is done. The weight of your goodness would be heavy on the Day of Judgement if you follow the right path in this world. The deeds of people who followed the wrong path in this world will have no weight on the Day of Judgement. They will have a terrible time. Make the Holy Qur’an and Truth your guides for success. Umar, if you follow the path I propose for you, I will surely be by your side.’

Umar more than lived up to Caliph Abu Bakr’s wise words; indeed, he thrived and excelled in so many ways that his reign has found its way into Muslim folklore. Muslim children across the globe grow up listening to their parents and grandparents relating tales about Caliph Umar and his glorious achievements. Some of Umar’s salient contributions included the development of a functioning Islamic democracy, and the formation of a Council of Advisors to discuss and debate issues before final decisions were made. He established the rule of law across the rapidly expanding Islamic State and ensured that equality of treatment and freedom of expression were made the cornerstones of his reign.

Ordinary people could stand up in the mosque and interrupt him in the middle of his sermon or announcement, to challenge him on any policy issues including taxation, political administration, civil matters, military affairs or the allocation of marriage dowry. He was fully accountable to his people. If any complaint was raised, Umar made sure it was dealt with immediately and he never hesitated in correcting his own mistakes, or those of who served under him. If the complainants were found to be wrong, he reasoned with them on the basis of the Qur’an and Prophetic teachings (sunnah).

With the rapid expansion of the Islamic dominion, Umar devised a provincial system of administration and appointed governors to oversee the smooth running of each province, with all the governors reporting directly to him. Although he was based at his headquarters in Madinah, Umar always kept in close contact with all his governors, never failing to remind them about the importance of serving the people with honesty, fairness, justice and equality. A functioning judicial system was devised and implemented by Umar, so that legal disputes could be resolved in a fair and effective manner in accordance with Islamic principles and guidelines.

He developed an equally efficient taxation and revenue department, which collected and distributed zakat (alms or poor due), taxes and other revenues from all the regions of the Islamic State, under the supervision of the chief treasurer who reported directly to him. Looking after the welfare of the poor, needy, orphans and disabled people was vitally important to Umar, because he felt he was directly responsible for their well-being. In order to meet the needs of society’s most vulnerable people, Umar established a social security system. Being one of the most learned companions of the Prophet, he promoted learning and education by constructing mosques and schools across the Islamic dominion. Indeed, during his reign, mosques