Purple Mountains & Wilderness: True Stories of the Great American West

By George U. Hubbard

Between 1840 and 1910, hundreds of thousands of men, women, and children from all over the world traveled deep into the underdeveloped American West, lured by the prospects of adventure, freedom, and opportunity all galvanized by the spirit of Manifest Destiny. Alongside this rapid expansion of the United States, a second, overlapping social shift was taking place: the rising status of women. In a settler society busy building itself from scratch, women and children had to compromise prior sensibilities and take on many of the same responsibilities as their husbands and fathers who were often away from them for extended periods of time.

 

In Purple Mountains & Wilderness: True Stories of the Great American West, consummate storyteller George Hubbard continues his tradition of bringing to life riveting histories of courageous little-known men and women—the settlers, and the Native Americans and Hispanics they displaced—who played monumental roles in one of America's most transformative periods.

Along with the unsung heroes, myths and legends arose of the infamous and the famous: Bat Masterson, "Doc" Holliday, "Big Nose" George, Kit Carson, Chief Kicking Bird, Buffalo Bill, Chief Yellow Hand, Emperor Norton, Carry Nation, John D. Lee, Katie Elder, Ma Ferguson, and Pancho Villa to name a few. You are probably already familiar with most of these people and with the thousands of others whose names never made it into the history books. Legends of these people – and some of their 4-legged companions such as Old Blue, Spike, and Thornburg – prevail in the United States and beyond, existing not only in the popular mind and tradition but in ballads, television, movies, and Broadway. They are legends of Robin Hoods, eccentrics, gunslingers, womanizers, loyal friends, and "no one messes with my children" mamas.

 

Hubbard's contribution is to provide true and entertaining glimpses into the characteristics and escapades that made them great – their hopes, their dreams, their schemes, their successes, and their failures. He carefully documents all of the stories in Purple Mountains & Wilderness providing the reader with a better understanding of the culture, traditions, beauty, and wonder of the Great American West.

 

It was an exciting time. Award-winning and bestselling author, Hubbard focuses on that excitement.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Punaluu Data, LLC
• Release date: Apr 25, 2022
• ISBN: 9781735833859

George U. Hubbard

George U. Hubbard, PhD, MS, BS Born in 1928, George Hubbard was born into and grew up privileged. He wasn't privileged the way most people think of privilege - financial wealth - he was privileged to grow up where education and culture were prized above money. The son of a university president and beloved educator who created a cultural Mecca in North Central Texas, George literally sat at the feet of luminaries such as Robert Frost, Amelia Earhart, Edna St. Vincent Millay, Lily Pons, Eleanor Roosevelt, and many, many more. From these internationally renowned icons, George learned the art of storytelling and the thrill of adventure and exploration. George loved unhurried road trips. He took great pleasure in wandering the back roads of the Old West; in taking ten mile detours off the Interstate to some obscure historical market; in combing through small local museums and libraries to unearth the facts behind myths and legends then bringing to life riveting histories of little-known people, places, and animals. Through his writings, Hubbard provides true and entertaining glimpses into the characteristics and escapades that made them great – their hopes, their dreams, their schemes, their successes, and their failures. He found the mid-19th Century and early 20th Century an especially exciting time in the Old West, and Hubbard’s stories focus on that excitement. Award-winning and bestselling author George U. Hubbard spent his life as an educator. Writing was his avocation. After completing his tour of duty in the United States Army during the Korean War, George taught junior high school mathematics briefly before being recruited by corporate America at the dawn of the computer age. IBM lured him away from Lockheed, but after 32 years teaching and training both IBM employees and clients, he retired to focus on his true passions – writing and academia. He retired again from Texas Woman’s University where he taught statistics. George holds a PhD from the University of North Texas, an MS – Statistics from Stanford University, and an MS and BSEE from The University of Texas. He is the author of numerous newspaper, magazine and journal articles books.

Book preview

Purple Mountains & Wilderness

Purple Mountains & Wilderness: True Stories of the Great American West

George U. Hubbard

Published by Punaluu Data, LLC, 2022.

Also by George U. Hubbard

Fight On! World War II and Cold War Experiences of Lt. Commander John R. Jack Hubbard, USNR

Marauders, Misfits, and Mormons: True Stories of Early Utah

Purple Mountains & Wilderness: True Stories of the Great American West

Watch for more at George U. Hubbard’s site.

PURPLE MOUNTAINS & WILDERNESS

True Stories of the Great American West

GEORGE U. HUBBARD

Copyright © 2021 by George Hubbard

All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the author, except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.

ISBN (print): 978-1-7358338-4-2

ISBN (ebook): 978-1-7358338-5-9

Cover, Section Illustrations, and Story Maps by Kyson A. Barlow

Map of Western Territories, 1848:

National Archives and Records Administration

https://history.house.gov/HouseRecord/Detail/15032436115

Unless otherwise noted at the end of each story, photographs were taken and are owned by the author.

In Loving Memory

Of

Billie S. Hubbard

---

My traveling companion, researcher, promoter, and wife for 66 years. She enjoyed finding these stories as much as I enjoyed writing and sharing them. The following is one of her fabric art note cards entitled, Colorado Memories created in 2009.

CONTENTS

Foreword

Preface

Hispanic Beginnings

Introduction

Spanish

The First Thanksgiving?

~ El Paso, TX ~

Knotted Cords Coordinated the Pueblo Revolt of 1680

~ Santa Fe, NM ~

The Miracle of San Miguel

~ Socorro, TX ~

A Supreme Act of Charity

~ Estancia Plains, NM ~

The Lady in Blue

~ Santa Fe, NM ~

Mexican

Early Mexican Culture Had Charm and Romance

~ Los Angeles, CA ~

Did the Flag of 1824 Fly Over the Alamo?

~ San Antonio, TX ~

Drawing a Black Bean Meant Death

~ La Grange, TX ~

A Boy Soldier for Pancho Villa

~ Baytown, TX ~

Two Friends Save Each Other’s Lives

~ Columbus, NM ~

Pancho Villa Was a True Gentleman

~ Weslaco, TX ~

Westward Expansion

Introduction

Mountain Men

Uncle Dick Wootton Earns His Nickname

~ Denver, CO ~

Kit Carson Takes a Wife

~ Green River, CO ~

American Trappers Challenge the British

~ Mountain Green, UT ~

Conquering the Black Canyon of the Gunnison

~ Gunnison, CO ~

The Martin Handcart Company Is Caught in the Snow

~ Martin’s Cove, WY ~

Miners

The Great Diamond Hoax

~ San Francisco, CA ~

The Naming of Virginia City, Nevada

~ Virginia City, NV ~

Water and Silver Don’t Coexist Well

~ Tombstone, AZ ~

There Is No Night in Creede

~ Creede, CO ~

Running a Hotel Wasn’t That Easy

~ Denver, CO ~

If You Hide It, You May Lose It

~ Tahlequah, OK ~

Settlers

Homesteading Sometimes Had Its Humorous Moments

~ Oak Creek, CO ~

The Oklahoma Land Run of 1889 Gives Rise to Sooners and Boomers

~ Guthrie, OK ~

If You Don’t Have Snowshoes, Try Walking on Quilts

~ Panguitch, UT ~

The Donner Party Leaves a Vital Legacy

~ Henefer, UT ~

You Don’t Mess With Thomas Grover

~ Centerville, UT ~

Indians

Introduction

Way of Life

Never Bet Against the Comanches in a Horse Race

~ Bronte, TX ~

Squaw Fights

~ Santa Clara, UT ~

It May Be Better for the Dead to Stay Dead

~ Pawhuska, OK ~

Mormons Avert a Paiute Massacre

~ Las Vegas, NV ~

Chief Kicking Bird Was No Coward

~ Jacksboro, TX ~

Relationship with White Men

Billy Bowlegs, the Seminole Chief Who Could Not Be Conquered

~ Ft. Gibson, OK ~

The Medicine Lodge Peace Council

~ Jacksboro, TX ~

The Quakers Try to Civilize the Indians

~ Jacksboro, TX ~

Buffalo Bill Takes on Chief Yellow Hand

~ Warbonnet Creek, NE ~

Chief Washakie Was a Friend of the White Men

~ Fort Waskakie, WY ~

The Indians Help Peter Shirt Plow His Fields

~ Parowan, UT ~

Emma Lee Is Terrified by Some Navajo Indians

~ Marble Canyon, AZ ~

Saline Smithson Was a Special Pioneer

~ Woodruff, AZ ~

Religion and Customs

The Last Man to Die by Creek Law

~ Okmulguee, OK ~

Are The Tonkawas a Forgotten People?

~ Bastrop, TX ~

The Ghost Dance Symbolized the Indians’ Last Great Hope

~ Mason Valley, NV ~

Communication Links

Introduction

Messages

Mail Service Was Important to the Western Miners

~ Amargosa, NV ~

The Jackass Express Precedes the Pony Express

~ Sutter Creek, CA ~

Pony Express Riders Never Turned Back

~ Schellbourne, NV ~

Buffalo Bill Rode Hard for the Pony Express

Nebraska and Wyoming

Transportation

That Was No Lady

~ Riverside, AZ ~

The Poetic Stagecoach Robber

~ San Francisco, CA ~

When the Rio Grande Railroad Built Into Rollinsville

~ Rollinsville, CO ~

The Harvey Houses Were an American Institution

~ Temple, TX ~

Minnie Isgreen Twice Escaped Death

~ Salt Lake City, UT ~

Ezekiel Saw the Wheel, and Reverend Cannon Saw the Flying Machine

~ Pittsburg, TX ~

The Santa Fe Trail Had No Comforts

~ Bent’s Fort, CO ~

Train Travel in the Late 1800s Had Its Interesting Aspects

~ Grenada, CO ~

Who Stole My Depot?

~ Lamar, CO ~

Law and Order

Introduction

Frontier Justice

Frontier Courts Got the Job Done

~ Nevada City, NV ~

Mary McCann Was Too Busy to Stand Trial

~ Bodie, CA ~

We Need More Jails

~ Bishop, CA ~

Justice, Even If Informal, Was Sure

~ Mount Pleasant, TX ~

My Name is Bat Masterson

~ Lamar, CO ~

Weapons

The Colt Revolver Revolutionized Frontier Warfare

~ Washington, TX ~

The Winchester Rifle Took Its Toll in More Than One Way

~ San Jose, CA ~

Did Al Packer Eat His Companions?

~ Gunnison, CO ~

Reynolds Got There Just in Time

~ Denver, CO ~

The Original Sons of Katie Elder

~ Ridgway, CO ~

Gun Slingers

Elfego Baca Had More Lives Than a Cat

~ Reserve, NM ~

Sam Dittenhoefer Outwits Billy the Kid

~ Santa Fe, NM ~

The Third Time Was Not a Charm for Black Jack Ketchum

~ Clayton, NM ~

It Took Two Hangings to End Bill Longley’s Life

~ Evergreen, TX ~

Ned Christie Held Off the Lawmen for Seven Years

~ Tahlequah, OK ~

Doc Holliday: If You Can Find Him, You Can Have Him

~ Glenwood Springs, CO ~

Big Nose George Couldn’t Win For Losing

~ Rawlins, WY ~

People

Introduction

Pioneers

A Remittance Woman Succeeds at Homesteading

~ Weed, NM ~

Eilley Orrum: The Washoe Seeress

~ Gold Hill, NV ~

Henry Flipper is Dismissed From the Military

~ Fort Sill, OK ~

Buffalo Bill: May He Rest in Peace

~ Denver, CO ~

Entrepreneurs

Ferry Carpenter Brings the Cattlemen and Sheepmen Together

~ Rifle, CO ~

No One is Going to Rob this Bank

~ Denver, CO ~

Emperor Norton

~ San Francisco, CA ~

Politicians

Harry Tammen Adjourns the Colorado Legislature

~ Denver, CO ~

Governor Gilpin Gets His Reward

~ Glorieta Pass, NM ~

Sunday School is Dismissed

~ Austin, TX ~

Quanah Becomes the County Seat of Hardeman County

~ Quanah, TX ~

Characters

Russian Bill: A Make-Believe Bad Man

~ Tombstone, AZ ~

A Memorable Lesson in Humility

~ Temple, TX ~

Carry Nation Attempts to Purify Denver

~ Denver, CO ~

Animals

Introduction

Large Animals

Old Blue Was King of the Longhorns

~ Dodge City, KS ~

The Indians Were Resourceful Hunters of Buffalo

~ Colorado ~

Cleo Hubbard Made the Buffalo Behave

~ Claude, TX ~

The Cowboys Challenge the Cavalry to a Horse Race

~ Dallas, Fort Worth, and San Antonio, TX ~

Old Bill’s Horse Stayed With Him

~ Alamosa, CO ~

Mules, Though Essential Beasts of Burden, Had Minds of Their Own

~ Santa Fe, NM ~

Jeff Davis’ Folly Was a Unique Experiment

~ Camp Verde, TX ~

Old Ephraim Was a Bear to Remember

~ Cache National Forest, UT ~

Sea Monsters? In Utah?

~ Bear Lake, UT ~

Small Animals

The Saga of Bummer and Lazarus

~ San Francisco, CA ~

Spike Was Born to Fight

~ Clarendon, TX ~

A Dog Named Thornburg?

~ Meeker, CO ~

The Lacey Dogs Brought in the Hogs

~ Llano, TX ~

The Lobos Were Mean but Noble Animals

~ San Marcos, TX ~

Those Majestic Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep

~ Colorado ~

Social, Activities, and Culture

Introduction

Culture

Culture? In Death Valley?

~ Death Valley, CA ~

Ina Coolbrith Helps Launch Several Western Writing Centers

~ San Francisco and Oakland, CA ~

Reading, ‘Riting, and ‘Rithmetic

~ Elk Springs, CO ~

The Christmas Star of Palmer Lake

~ Palmer Lake, CO ~

Amusement

Never Underestimate the Power of Women

~ Temple, TX ~

E Clampus Vitus

~ Sierra City, CA ~

When a Dance is Held in Your Honor, You Should Attend

~ No Man’s Land, OK ~

From Bloomer Girls to the Major Leagues

~ Ouray, CO ~

Home Life

Flour Sacks Make Excellent Frontier Underwear

~ Texas ~

Home Remedies on the Frontier

~ Lee’s Ferry, AZ ~

City Life

Temple, Texas Goes to War Against Its Rats

~ Temple, TX ~

Saints Roost: Utopia in the Texas Panhandle

~ Clarendon, TX ~

Water Works Wiley Saves the Day for Muskogee

~ Muskogee, OK ~

Cultures

The Fredericksburg Easter Fires Commemorate a Treaty

~ Fredericksburg, TX ~

How Do You Move a Wagon Without a Team?

~ Norse, TX ~

You Had a Better Pig Sty at Home

~ La Grange, TX ~

If We Can’t Fight Someone Else, We’ll Fight Among Ourselves

~ San Antonio, TX ~

The Chinese Tong War at Weaversville

~ Weaverville, CA ~

Chinese Coolie Labor Gets the Central Pacific Over the Mountains

~ Sacramento, CA ~

Other Books By George U. Hubbard

FOREWORD

There have always been men (and possibly women) who have yearned to know what lay beyond the horizon. Norse explorer Erik Thorvaldsson and Spanish and Portuguese explorers Christopher Columbus, Ferdinand Magellan, and Hernán Cortés were among the earliest to have a major impact on the land that would become known as the Americas. They were quickly followed by French explorers Jacques Cartier, Samuel De Champlain, Jacques Marquette, and Louis Joliet. Over time, the peoples, animals, and geography discovered by these and other explorers led to legends that piqued imaginations for centuries.

The indigenous people of the Americas had populated the lands since before the birth of Christ. One of the unifying aspects of all of the various tribes was their belief in the Great White God or Great Spirit who would one day return. When the European explorers arrived, many of the indigenous peoples’ initial reactions were that the explorers were from the Great White God who had come to save them. Sadly, the opposite was true. These Native Americans, given the name Indians by Christopher Columbus, who thought he had landed in India, were viewed by the Europeans with vile contempt. The Indians were considered to be only slightly more evolved than animals.

Thomas Jefferson wrote a letter to Marquis de Chastellux dated June 7, 1785, in which he offered a glimpse into his struggle to make sense of racial differences and similarities. As part of his reply to the charges of French scientists that plant and animal life, including humans, degenerated in America, Thomas Jefferson asserted:

And I am safe in affirming that the proofs of genius given by the Indians of N. America, place them on a level with Whites in the same uncultivated state . . . . I believe the Indian then to be in body & mind equal to the whiteman. I have supposed the black man, in his present state, might not be so; but it would be hazardous to affirm, that, equally cultivated for a few generations, he would not become so.

History has proven that genius knows no ethnic, racial, language, gender, or age barriers.

In 1803, President Jefferson consulted experts before writing detailed instructions to Meriwether Lewis (1774–1809) instructing him to explore the Missouri River basin, conduct scientific and ethnographic studies, and find a route to the Pacific Ocean. Lewis, his private secretary and a U.S. army captain, spent months in scientific studies to prepare for the mission. These instructions were written before Jefferson knew of the finalization of the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson was particularly concerned that the expedition establish an American presence among the Native American tribes and secure their trading and diplomatic loyalties for the United States.

The westward migration was officially sanctioned—as long as it was for the benefit of the United States of America. In spite of the enormous human costs, the overwhelming majority of white Americans saw western expansion as an opportunity. To them, access to western land offered the promise of independence and prosperity to anyone willing to meet the hardships of frontier life.

On December 5, 1848, President James K. Polk transmitted his annual message to Congress. He used this map as an exhibit to illustrate his desired plan for the land acquired through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican-American War earlier in the year. The land included the present-day states of California, Nevada, and Utah, as well as parts of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming. The map shows the latitude of 36°30' established in the Missouri Compromise of 1820: Slavery was prohibited in the Louisiana Territory in areas north of this latitude, and Polk advocated extending the prohibition to the Pacific Ocean to cover the newly acquired acreage. The table on the left-hand side describes the territories and their boundaries and lists the square mileage of land that fell north and that fell south of 36°30'. The table on the right-hand side tallies the total square mileage of free states (454,340 square miles) and slave states in the Union (610,798 square miles). The Compromise of 1850, actually a series of different bills, resolved the status of the new territory and diffused sectional tension over slavery for a time.

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-- National Archives and Records Administration

According to University of Wisconsin History professor Frederick Jackson Turner, it was the frontier that shaped American institutions, society, and culture. The experience of the frontier, the westward march of pioneers from the Atlantic to the Pacific Coast, distinguishes Americans from Europeans, and gives the American nation its exceptional character.

Many painters and writers cited the American West as their inspiration. The West began to symbolize the American identity: rough and rugged individualism willing to face new challenges. Mark Twain is credited with deliberately manipulating contemporary conceptions of the American West by creating and then modifying a public image that eventually won worldwide fame. He established the central role of the western region in the development of a persona that helped redefine American manhood.

So when did it become the Wild West?

The 1860s through the 1890s gave birth to the period known as the Wild West and laid a foundation to its ensuing mythology. It was an era of cowboys, Indians, pioneers, outlaws, and gunslingers brought together by the purposes of expansion, defense, greed, and reinvention.

The Wild West was so named for the lawlessness of the untamed territories west of the Mississippi River from 1865-1895. While the Old West was famous for cowboys, native Indians, trailblazers, pioneers, and prospectors, the Wild West was infamous for the outlaws, gangs and gunfighters such as Wyatt Earp, Wild Bill Hickok, Billy the Kid, Butch Cassidy, the Sundance Kid, Frank and Jesse James, and the Clanton gang. The most notorious event was the gunfight at the O.K. Corral in Tombstone, Arizona.

Contributing to the international intrigue and mystic of the lands west of the Appalachians were the outright wars fought to control the territories and their vast natural resources/wealth. The War of 1812 (which really started in 1810 in Florida with Tecumseh before moving west and lasting until 1815); the Texas Revolution with its infamous Battle of the Alamo in 1835, followed by the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836; the Mexican-American War from 1846-1848; and the Utah War of 1857-1858 are the better known wars that are still mentioned in U.S. history classes. Lesser known turf wars were included in the Sheep War from 1870-1900 between the sheepherders and the cattlemen that were fought over grazing rights (and between homesteaders and cattle barons). The longest and fiercest of all of the wars across the frontier were the almost continuous wars between the United States government and the various Native American tribes, which lasted until 1924. The government was determined to own all of the land from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.

Around 1893 as she embraced the panoramic view from the top of Pikes Peak (Colorado), English professor Katherine Lee Bates penned the poem America: A Poem for July 4th.

O great for halcyon skies,

For amber waves of grain,

For purple mountain majesties

Above the enameled plain!

America! America!

God shed His grace on thee,

Till souls wax fair as earth and air

And music-hearted sea!

---

O great for pilgrim feet

Whose stern, impassioned stress

A thoroughfare for freedom beat

Across the wilderness!

America! America!

God shed His grace on thee

Till paths be wrought through wilds of thought

By pilgrim foot and knee!

---

O great for glory-tale

Of liberating strife,

When once or twice, for man's avail,

Men lavished precious life!

America! America!

God shed His grace on thee

Till selfish gain no longer stain,

The banner of the free!

---

O great for patriot dream

That sees beyond the years

Thine alabaster cities gleam

Undimmed by human tears!

America! America!

God shed His grace on thee

Till nobler men keep once again

Thy whiter jubilee!

Though modified twice to the words we now sing in our patriotic song, America the Beautiful, Bates’ original poem captured the awe-inspiring beauty and majesty of the Frontier, the Old West, and the Wild West. The lure that captivated all who fought for, journeyed across, and created the renowned Great American West continues to this day.

— Elizabeth Hubbard

References:

https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/jefferson/jeffwest.html

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https://www2.palomar.edu/users/scrouthamel/ams105/american_west.htm

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http://www.american-historama.org/1881-1913-maturation-era/wild-west.htm

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https://www.biography.com/news/wild-west-figures

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https://www.history.com/topics/westward-expansion/wilderness-road

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wars:_1800%E2%80%931899

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https://americanliterature.com/author/katharine-lee-bates

PREFACE

America’s westward expansion, justified in the minds of many by the concept of Manifest Destiny, was an epic movement. Conquering and settling the West was especially challenging because of the arid climate, the formidable mountain ranges, and the resistance of the Indians who were there first. It is an incredible story of hardship, courage, and inventiveness. The overall accomplishments of those who settled the West should make us proud as we reflect on their achievements against overwhelming odds. And when we view them as people with desires, determination, and feelings, rather than just as impersonal names, their accomplishments become our heritage and our enjoyment as we learn about them.

This book is not an attempt to tell the complete story of the American West. That is the historians’ job. Rather, this book is an attempt to capture the flavor and essence of those times.

This book is both a serious work and a light-hearted work.

This is a light-hearted book in the sense that it is a collection of short vignettes depicting the humor and drama of people, places, and events in the settlement of the great American West. The stories are true, and they provide lively and interesting reading. Because the stories are also short, this book could be described as a bedroom book or a bathroom book.

This is also a serious book in the sense that it attempts to portray the human-interest aspects of life on the frontier. From these stories, the reader should gain an added appreciation for the adventure, laughter, and challenges of those times. The stories are organized into meaningful categories, and each category begins with an introduction that places its stories into their correct historical context. Therefore, this book should provide mortar to cement the historian’s bricks into a more meaningful whole.

INTRODUCTION

After completing their conquest of Mexico and its Aztec rulers, the newly arrived Spaniards began to spread southward into Central America and northward into what is now the southwestern portion of the United States. From Texas to California, the Spanish established missions, and they created villages. They engaged in agriculture, and they nurtured vast herds of livestock.

The Spaniards had a twofold interest in this northern territory: (1) the search for more gold and (2) the Christianizing of the native population. Spanish sponsors and entrepreneurs sent exploring parties to search for expected wealth, and the Church sent its priesthood to tame and convert the Indians. Armed Conquistadors supported both endeavors. Although the hoped-for wealth never materialized in any substantial measure in the north, the subjugation and Christianization of the southwest Indians bore remarkable results. Sometimes with love, but often with ruthlessness, the Fathers imposed their religion upon the Indians. They achieved some noteworthy successes, but for the most part, they succeeded merely in covering the Indian’s internal religion with an outward veneer of Christianity. The Spaniards’ continued efforts of subjugating the Indians eventually brought pockets of revolt, culminating in the great Pueblo Revolt of 1680 in New Mexico.

When Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, a general withdrawal of Spaniards occurred as their former holdings came under Mexican authority. The departing Spaniards left large numbers of cattle and horses in Texas, and although left to themselves, this livestock thrived and multiplied. It was the expectation of free livestock as well as free fertile land that lured so many Americans to fill the void left by the Spanish in Texas.

Under its assumed doctrine of Manifest Destiny, the United States was not to be denied possessing the lands lying between its early western borders and the Pacific Ocean. Texas declared its independence from Mexico following Sam Houston’s victory over General Santa Anna at San Jacinto in 1836. The war between the United States and Mexico, which began in 1846 and terminated with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, transferred most of California and the Territory of New Mexico from Mexico to the United States. In 1854, when Mexican President Santa Anna sold 19,000,000 acres of land in southern New Mexico and southern Arizona to the United States in a transaction known as the Gadsen Purchase, the border between the two nations finally became permanently fixed.

Although American authority replaced Mexican authority in these ceded lands, the Hispanic culture remained. Much of the Mexican population remained in their towns and villages. Family land grants dating from the Spanish period remained in force, although severely challenged and usurped in some cases because of lack of legal documentation.

As Americans poured into these areas, the remaining Hispanics clung to their language, religion, and social customs. In many cases, the mixing of Anglo and Hispanic cultures produced a charming and romantic era as the Americans learned to enjoy the more carefree and relaxed lifestyle of the Hispanics.

It wasn’t all peace and harmony, however. Although the border was now fixed, both sides perpetrated occasional illegal incursions into the other side’s territory. The most noteworthy of these incursions occurred in 1916 when the Mexican revolutionary, Pancho Villa, led his army across the border to plunder Columbus, New Mexico, in retaliation for his recent defeat by a Mexican federal army that the United States had aided.

The stories that follow are intended to present human interest glimpses into these Spanish and Mexican periods. The stories tell of a variety of situations that typify the adventures, drama, and humor of those times.

SPANISH

THE FIRST THANKSGIVING?

~ EL PASO, TX ~

The Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth Colony is 1620, and after a nearly disastrous winter, they planted and reaped a bounteous harvest the following year. As a gesture to their God in thanking