Reflections on the Evolution of Jewish Mysticism

By Dr. Martin Sicker

It has been asserted that monotheism, in the Jewish tradition, has long been understood both exoterically and esoterically. In the exoteric Scripture-based rabbinic tradition, monotheism is the belief in a one and only God, a belief which goes hand in hand with the affirmation of distinct individual and divine existences, so that there is a dualism between humanity and God. In the esoteric or mystic tradition, this dualism is overcome by a conception of monotheism in which God is One, not only in his ‘Lordship’ but also in his universal reality. That is, God is the only reality, so that everything which exists is in essence an aspect of divinity.
Jewish mysticism has both a devotional or practical and an intellectual or speculative side. On its devotional side it emphasizes those aspects of the biblical precepts which serve to promote direct communion between the worshipper and God. On its speculative side it is especially concerned with outlining and bringing into relief the link or links between God and man, or more generally between the Creator and the universe. The focus of this study is on the questions of how and why Jewish mysticism arose and underwent a variegated evolution throughout much of the history of the Jewish people from remote antiquity to the present day.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Dec 5, 2021
• ISBN: 9781669802433

Dr. Martin Sicker

Dr. Martin Sicker is a writer and lecturer on the Middle Eastern geopolitical and cultural history, with a special focus on Jewish history and religion. He is the author of 62 previous books on these subjects as well as on geopolitics, political theory, and political economy.

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2 Volume 1916 Holy Bible 24 Books of the Old Testament Hebrew & English

Harkavy. Translated and Revised by Alexander Harkavy. Printed in 1916 by Hebrew

Publishing Company of New York, New York.

Rev. date: 12/03/2021

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Contents

Introduction

1.   The Rise of Jewish Mysticism

2.   From Ancient Mysticism to Medieval Kabbalah

3.   The Evolution of Kabbalah in the 16th-17th Centuries

4.   The Era of Hasidism

References

Notes

Introduction

Generally speaking, it has been suggested that mysticism may be conceived as a religious phenomenon that posits it adherents in a separate, and often conflicting, state compared to their co-religionists; that is, mysticism belongs to the wide range of religious expressions, but it is manifestly and essentially different from the concept of religion held by the majority and the establishment of any particular period or culture. Mysticism is most clearly designated by its negative statements: the denial of the veracity of sensual perception, the rejection of logic as a means of achieving truth, and—most importantly—the negation of communicative language as an instrument for the expression of divine truth.¹ Although stated as a general proposition, the author of this passage clearly appears to have extrapolated it from his extensive study of Jewish mysticism which, upon reflection, exemplifies every factor posited in it.

During the biblical period, we were told in Scripture that God revealed His will, as needed, to selected people, judges, kings, and prophets, thereby directly intervening in the history of the children of Israel. However, during the post-biblical period, the era of direct divine revelations came to an end, precipitating a radical change in the character of Judaism from a religion based on constant divine revelation to one that derives its authority from scriptural exegesis and tradition. . . . The new phenomenon of a scriptural religion had thus been established. As the exegesis of scriptures developed, suspicion and antagonism were gradually directed toward any expression of direct divine revelation. . . .Rabbinic Judaism of Late Antiquity became an intensely text-oriented religious culture.²

It has been noted that mystic schools and mystic circles flourished at nearly every important epoch of Jewish history, and the object of their studies was to penetrate to the true meaning hidden beneath the letter of Scripture. Some of the foremost Jewish legalists were also pronounced Kabbalists. And this esoteric study of the Law which is the quintessence of Kabbalah gave to its devotees not a shackled creed comprehended in formulae, but a religion of intense spiritual possibilities, rendering the Jew capable of a vivid sense of the nearness of God and filling him with a constant longing for communion with Him.³

The essence of Jewish mysticism is the mystic’s awareness of both the transcendence of God and His immanence within the true religious life, every facet of which is a revelation of God, although God Himself is most clearly perceived through man’s introspection. ⁴ Perhaps the primary challenge of mystical thought in Judaism is the attempt to reconcile the apparently contradictory experience of the self-concealing and self-revealing God to serve as a key to the truly religious life. Related to this aim is the even greater speculative attempt by some to reveal the mysteries of the hidden life of God and the relationships between the divine life on the one hand and the life of man and creation on the other.⁵

It has been pointed out that the term ‘mysticism’ does not have a Hebrew equivalent; therefore no Jewish mystic ever defined himself as a mystic, nor did any Jewish author define himself as a nonmystic. The appellation ‘mystic’ is an arbitrary one, which scholars attach to various phenomena, each motivated by his own understanding of the nature and characteristics of mysticism.⁶ However, although the term ‘mysticism’ is not to be found in pre-modern Jewish literature, there is a Hebrew equivalent of the term, sod, meaning ‘secret’, that was employed to refer to esoteric concepts that were to be treated as secret, the knowledge of which was not intended to be widely disseminated.

Putting aside the matter of terminology, it has been suggested that the distinguishing mark of mysticism in Judaism is a peculiar intensity of religious feeling, rising frequently to ecstasy, which gives to it a dynamic force unknown to the ordinary religion. Jewish mysticism has both a devotional or practical and an intellectual or speculative side. On its devotional side it emphasizes those aspects of the precepts which serve to promote direct communion between the worshipper and God, and in consequence it attaches a particular importance to prayer. On its speculative side it is especially concerned with outlining and bringing into relief the link or links between God and man, or more generally between the Creator and the universe.⁷ In this regard it has been asserted that Jewish mysticism in its various forms represents an attempt to interpret the religious values of Judaism in terms of mystical values. It concentrates upon the idea of the living God who manifests himself in the acts of Creation, Revelation and Redemption. Pushed to its extreme, the mystical meditation on this idea gives birth to the conception of a sphere, a whole realm of divinity, which underlies the world of our sense-data and which is present and active in all that exists.⁸

It has been asserted that monotheism, in the Jewish tradition, has long been understood both exoterically and esoterically. In the orthodox tradition, monotheism is the belief in one God, a belief which goes hand in hand with the affirmation of individual and ‘extra-divine’ existence, so that there is a dualism between the ‘servant’ and the ‘Lord’. In esoteric or Kabbalistic tradition, this dualism is overcome by a monotheism which reaches its final conclusion, its real and infinite significance, where God is One, not only in his ‘Lordship’ but in his whole reality; he is the One in the absolute sense, the ‘One without a second’, the only reality, so that everything which exists is in essence God.⁹

With regard to the provenance of Jewish mysticism, it has been observed that some enthusiastic partisans of the Kabbalah declare it to have been brought down from heaven by angels to teach the first man, after his fall, how to recover his primal nobility and bliss. Others suppose that the lawgiver of the Hebrews received it directly from God, during his forty days’ stay on Mount Sinai, that he transmitted it to seventy old men, sharing with them the gifts of the Holy Spirit, and that they in turn passed it on by word of mouth until the time when Ezra was commanded to transcribe it together with the Law. However, even the most careful scrutiny of the books of the Hebrew Bible will not find a single reference to secret teachings or the suggestion of a mystical doctrine intended to be transmitted to a small number of the spiritually and intellectually elite capable of comprehending them.¹⁰

Discounting the contrived notion of a secret esoteric revelation to Moses on Mount Sinai, which was no longer secret once he passed it on to seventy elders, we are left with the questions of how and why Jewish mysticism arose and underwent a variegated evolution throughout much of the history of the Jewish people from remote antiquity to the present day. Upon reflection, it might be suggested that Jewish engagement with the esoteric was a consequence of the tribulations experienced by the children of Israel, throughout their history, as a consequence of their commitment to the exoteric monotheistic revelation of the Torah, which distinguished them from the rest of mankind and effectively precluded their en masse assimilation to alien cultures.

As will be seen in the following pages, the focus on the esoteric began with the mystic visions of the prophets Isaiah and Ezekiel, which took place at times of political upheavals that saw the destruction of the northern kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the subsequent destruction of the kingdom of Judea and the Temple in Jerusalem by the Babylonians, and the exile of the educated classes in both instances. The next significant upsurge in interest in the esoteric took place when the Land of Israel was under Roman domination, which resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple, and the exile of many throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. That exile continued unabated for two millennia, during which the Jewish people were persecuted to one extent or another by Christians and Moslems because of their steadfast adherence to the Torah. Under these circumstances, it is quite understandable that some, and occasionally many, would seek solace in mystical speculation that transcended the harsh realities of the world in which they struggled to survive as children of Israel.

It should come as no surprise that Jewish mystical thought consists of numerous and diverse trends and formulations, and there exists a continuous expansion of the already mountainous volume of published literature on the subject to which this writer, as a complete novice in the field, am deeply indebted. The brief study that follows is the result of a curiosity about the mystical beliefs professed by some hasidic rabbis with whom I have had the occasion to chat after attending Sabbath services at their congregations. As indicated by the title of this study, what follows are reflections on the evolution of Jewish mysticism from its literary origins in biblical times to the present day.

1

The Rise of Jewish Mysticism

Although there is a vast body of literature dealing with Jewish Mysticism, there is comparatively little that deals with the subject in the early talmudic period, that is, the period of the sages between the destruction of the Second Temple in the first century and the publication of the Mishnah toward the end of the second century. And, there is especially little regarding the period between the loss of the Temple and the end of the Bar Kokhba rebellion in the first quarter of the second century. Nonetheless, it seems rather clear that beginning in the first century, along with the emergence of interest in messianism among the sages, there was also a keen interest among some of the sages in certain esoteric aspects of Scripture, such as the descriptions of the departures of Enoch and Elijah from the world of man.

With regard to Enoch, we are told: And Enoch walked with God, and he was not; for God took him (Gen. 5:24). With regard to the prophet, we are told that as he took leave of his disciple Elisha there appeared a chariot of fire, and horses of fire, which parted them both asunder; and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven (2 Kings 2:11). It is noteworthy that according to two legendary compilations Enoch ascended into heaven in a whirlwind, with horses and chariots of fire.¹¹ It is noteworthy that other sages evidently wished to draw a tenuous distinction between Enoch and Elijah, the latter playing a significant role in later mystical thought, and suggested that the phrases and he was not; for God took him simply meant that he was no more in the world, [having died].¹² Considered from a mystical perspective, Enoch, like Moses and Elijah, figures in the sacred history of Israel among many other prophets and saints who, whether in their spiritualized body or only in their soul—the body remaining as it were lifeless on earth—have achieved the celestial ‘ascent’ which ends in the union of man with God.¹³

Another focus of mystical interest in talmudic times concerned the color blue, which in some biblical passages refers to a sapphire, which in antiquity usually meant lapis lazuli, a deep blue stone filled with star-like golden particles. Thus we are told that during the revelation on Mount Sinai Then went up Moses, and Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel; and they saw the God of Israel; and there was under His feet the like of a paved work of sapphire stone, and the like of the very heaven for clearness (Ex. 24:9-10). As one modern commentator noted, What these men actually experienced is, of course, beyond human ken; but it is supposed that they fell into a trance in which the mystic vision was seen by them.¹⁴

Of even greater significance for the purpose of this study is God’s instruction to Moses, Speak unto the children of Israel, and bid them that they make them throughout their generations fringes in the corners of their garments, and that they put with the fringe of each corner a thread of blue . . . that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the Lord (Num. 15:38-39). The sage, Rabbi Meir, noted that the biblical verse does not say, ‘that ye may look upon them (the fringes)’ but that ye may look upon it (the blue thread), that is, the focus on the thread of blue implicitly refers to a focus on Him, who issued the commandments.¹⁵ Thus, it has been suggested that, viewed from a mystical perspective, the verse intends to teach that whoever keeps the law of the blue fringe, it is as though he had seen the divine Presence, for the blue resembles the sea and the sea resembles the sky, and the sky resembles the throne of the divine glory,¹⁶ as the prophet exclaimed: And above the firmament over their heads was the likeness of a throne as the appearance of a sapphire stone (Ezekiel 1:26).¹⁷ The medieval kabbalist, Abraham Abulafia (1240-1291), noted that the source of the blue dye was from a chilazon, which has the same letters as la-chazon, meaning, ‘for a vision.’ The implication being that through this dye, one could attain a vision approaching that of prophecy.¹⁸

It is noteworthy that the Zohar, the virtual ‘bible’ of Kabbalah discussed later in this study, makes a curious and extraordinary assertion regarding the color blue. All colors seen in a dream are of good presage, except blue; this is ever consuming and destroying, being the tree in which death is located. It spreads over the lower world, and because all things are situated beneath it, therefore they are perishable. It is true that it also pervades the heaven, and there are many objects there which are imperishable. These, however, are constituted of this blue light, whereas the lower ones are of coarser material, and constitute a lower world on which the upper one rests. Hence the blue light consumes and destroys them.¹⁹

While the idea of the mystical powers inherent in the thread of blue was well received in some talmudic sources, it also aroused significant opposition in others. This may be seen in the authoritative rabbinic rule, recorded in the Mishnah, which had the effect of deemphasizing the significance of the thread of blue by noting that in the event that a fringe of blue thread was unavailable, an entirely white thread was acceptable.²⁰ The rationale behind this novel interpretation of the biblical text took into account that the necessary blue dye was derived from a mollusk related to the murex, which was expensive and difficult to obtain. Accordingly, rather than see the law of the fringes go unobserved, the sages effectively set aside the biblical requirement for the inclusion of a blue thread when it was not readily available.

Nonetheless, it has been pointed out that those inclined to mysticism felt keenly the disappearance of the thread of blue, and there was even an attempt in hasidic circles at a later date, to restore it. But it apparently shared the fate that befell other manifestations of the esoteric in talmudic Judaism. Cherished in some circles, revered by some as a precious link with the divine, these expressions also evoked a negative reaction. They remained in the underground of popular religion and continued in their old veneration by some sages, but the major thrust of talmudic opinion was to discourage them.²¹ Indeed, it has been noted that there are explicit traditions in talmudic-midrashic literature of late antiquity concerning the subjects of cosmogony and cosmology, magic and angelology, subjects that were regarded by the sages as overly esoteric and in many instances dangerous to those ill-prepared to deal with them.²²

Of particular interest to those with an inclination toward the esoteric interpretation of Scripture was the biblical narrative of the Creation, which might appear to be utterly incomprehensible, when considered from a literal reading of the text. The implicit concept of creatio ex nihilo (creation from nothing), the creation of a physical world from a non-physical divine word, is mind boggling, yet that is what the biblical text was understood to be asserting. It may be assumed, for this reason alone, that two thousand years ago as is the case in the present day, instruction in the narratives of Genesis for the young began not with the story of the Creation but with the life of Abraham, leaving the former for the more mature students. And even with them there was a concern that study of the Creation would likely leave the more astute students with more questions than answers, which could have a negative effect on their attitudes toward the Torah. To deal with this concern, the sages promulgated a public education policy designed to limit the unintended consequences of serious pondering of the patently inexplicable. One element of that policy was subsequently enshrined in the Mishnah, which precluded discussion of the Creation narrative before more than a single person at a time, presuming that both teacher and student clearly understood the limits of what humans could understand regarding the acts of God.²³

The sages surely were also concerned about the vision reported by Isaiah of the Lord sitting upon a throne high and lifted up, and His train filled the Temple (Isa. 6:1), which contained an anthropomorphism that appears to have negated the traditional concept of God’s incorporeity, something that will be repeated more than once in mystic thought. However, of even greater concern than Isaiah’s vision was that of Ezekiel which described in great detail, in twenty-four verses, the host of heaven. And, in addition to the divine throne envisioned by Isaiah, Ezekiel describes a divine chariot mounted on wheels, and withersoever the spirit was to go, as the spirit was to go thither, so they went; and the wheels were lifted up beside them; for the spirit of the living creature was in the wheels (Ezek. 1:4-28).

It has been suggested that the appearance of Jewish mysticism in the talmudic period occurred, so it seems, when active mystical ascent to the divine world replaced passive homiletical speculation in the midrashic manner concerning the chariot envisioned by Ezekiel. This transition from passive interpretation to mystical activity marks the first stage in the development of Jewish mysticism, which continued for many centuries and eventually influenced the appearance of the major school of Jewish mysticism in medieval Christian Europe—the Kabbalah.²⁴ The historical details regarding this radical transition from passive interpretation of the biblical text to an esoteric reading of it, are not known to us, nor do we know the names of the early mystics who were responsible for this transition. There are, however, several sources that can be attributed to the tannaitic period which seem to indicate that this change occurred in or around the school of Rabbi Akiba ben Yosef,