General Aviation Aircraft Design: Applied Methods and Procedures

By Snorri Gudmundsson

General Aviation Aircraft Design, Second Edition, continues to be the engineer’s best source for answers to realistic aircraft design questions. The book has been expanded to provide design guidance for additional classes of aircraft, including seaplanes, biplanes, UAS, high-speed business jets, and electric airplanes. In addition to conventional powerplants, design guidance for battery systems, electric motors, and complete electric powertrains is offered. The second edition contains new chapters:

• Thrust Modeling for Gas Turbines
• Longitudinal Stability and Control
• Lateral and Directional Stability and Control

These new chapters offer multiple practical methods to simplify the estimation of stability derivatives and introduce hinge moments and basic control system design. Furthermore, all chapters have been reorganized and feature updated material with additional analysis methods. This edition also provides an introduction to design optimization using a wing optimization as an example for the beginner.

Written by an engineer with more than 25 years of design experience, professional engineers, aircraft designers, aerodynamicists, structural analysts, performance analysts, researchers, and aerospace engineering students will value the book as the classic go-to for aircraft design.

• The printed book is now in color, with 1011 figures and illustrations!
• Presents the most common methods for conceptual aircraft design
• Clear presentation splits text into shaded regions, separating engineering topics from mathematical derivations and examples
• Design topics range from the "new" 14 CFR Part 23 to analysis of ducted fans. All chapters feature updated material with additional analysis methods. Many chapters have been reorganized for further help. Introduction to design optimization is provided using a wing optimization as an example for the beginner
• Three new chapters are offered, two of which focus on stability and control. These offer multiple practical methods to simplify the estimation of stability derivatives. The chapters introduce hinge moments and basic control system design
• Real-world examples using aircraft such as the Cirrus SR-22 and Learjet 45

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Oct 31, 2021
• ISBN: 9780128226476

Snorri Gudmundsson

Dr. Snorri Gudmundsson served from 1995-2009 at Cirrus Aircraft. He served in various engineering roles in the development of several aircraft, including the Cirrus SR20 and SR22 aircraft. From 2005-2009, he served as the Chief Aerodynamicist, where he was responsible for the aerodynamics of the SF50 Vision jet (recipient of the 2017 Collier Trophy). He had two appointments a Designated Engineering Representative (DER) for the FAA, as a Structural and Flight Analyst. He has contributed to the certification of several aircraft. This includes development and certification flight and structural testing. He has conducted load analysis, stability and control evaluation, and performance analysis on a variety of single and multi-engine aircraft. In 2010, Dr. Gudmundsson joined the faculty at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, where he is currently an Associate Professor of Aerospace Engineering, teaching aircraft design and aerodynamics. Dr. Snorri has a Youtube channel on Aircraft Design: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCS0O5jdhFrdYBFC5YJP6axg/

Book preview

9780128226476_FC

General Aviation Aircraft Design

Applied Methods and Procedures

Second Edition

Snorri Gudmundsson, BScAE, MScAE, Ph.D., FAA DER (ret.)

Associate Professor of Aerospace Engineering, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach, FL, United States

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface to the 1st Edition

Preface to the 2nd Edition

Acknowledgments for the 1st Edition

Acknowledgments for the 2nd Edition

Disclaimer

Helpful Notes

Helpful Websites for the Aircraft Designer

The Greek Alphabet

Prefixes for SI Units

Prefixes for SI Units

A Note About Format

A Note About Mass and Force

List of Abbreviations and Common Terms

List of Variables

Chapter 1: The Aircraft Design Process

Abstract

1.1: Introduction

1.2: General Process of Aircraft Design and Development

1.3: Introduction to Aviation Regulations and Certification

1.4: How to Design a New Aircraft

1.5: Elements of Project Engineering

1.6: Presenting the Design Project

References

Chapter 2: Aircraft Cost Analysis

Abstract

2.1: Introduction

2.2: The Estimation of Project Development Costs

2.3: Estimating Aircraft Operational Costs

Exercises

References

Chapter 3: Initial Sizing

Abstract

3.1: Introduction

3.2: Constraint Analysis

3.3: Introduction to Trade Studies

3.4: Introduction to Design Optimization

Exercises

References

Chapter 4: Aircraft Configuration Layout

Abstract

4.1: Introduction

4.2: The Fundamentals of the Configuration Layout

References

Chapter 5: Aircraft Structural Layout

Abstract

5.1: Introduction

5.2: Aircraft Fabrication and Materials

5.3: Airframe Structural Layout

References

Chapter 6: Aircraft Weight Analysis

Abstract

6.1: Introduction

6.2: Initial Weight Analysis Methods

6.3: Secondary Weight Analysis Methods

6.4: Statistical Weight Estimation Methods

6.5: Direct Weight Estimation Methods

6.6: Inertia Properties

6.7: The Center-of-Gravity Envelope

Exercises

References

Chapter 7: Selecting the Powerplant

Abstract

7.1: Introduction

7.2: Piston Engines

7.3: Gas Turbine Engines

7.4: Electric Motors and Battery Technology

Exercises

References

Chapter 8: The Anatomy of the Airfoil

Abstract

8.1: Introduction

8.2: The Geometry of the Airfoil

8.3: The Force and Moment Characteristics of the Airfoil

Exercises

References

Chapter 9: The Anatomy of the Wing

Abstract

9.1: Introduction

9.2: The Trapezoidal Wing Planform

9.3: The Geometric Layout of the Wing

9.4: Planform Selection

9.5: Lift and Moment Characteristics of Wings

9.6: Wing Stall Characteristics

9.7: Prandtl’s Lifting-Line Theory

Exercises

References

Chapter 10: The Anatomy of Lift Enhancement

Abstract

10.1: Introduction

10.2: Leading-Edge High-Lift Devices

10.3: Trailing-Edge High-Lift Devices

10.4: Effect of Deploying High-Lift Devices on Wings

10.5: Wingtip Design

References

Chapter 11: The Anatomy of the Tail

Abstract

11.1: Introduction

11.2: The Geometry of the Tail

11.3: On the Pros and Cons of Tail Configurations

11.4: Initial Tail Sizing Methods

Exercises

References

Chapter 12: The Anatomy of the Fuselage

Abstract

12.1: Introduction

12.2: Fundamentals of Fuselage Shapes

12.3: Sizing the Fuselage

12.4: Estimating the Geometric Properties of the Fuselage

12.5: Additional Information

References

Chapter 13: The Anatomy of the Landing Gear

Abstract

13.1: Introduction

13.2: Tires, Wheels, and Brakes

13.3: Geometric Layout of the Landing Gear

References

Chapter 14: Thrust Modeling for Gas Turbines

Abstract

14.1: Introduction

14.2: Theory of Reactive Thrust

14.3: General Thrust Modeling for Gas Turbines

Exercises

References

Chapter 15: Thrust Modeling for Propellers

Abstract

15.1: Introduction

15.2: Propeller Effects

15.3: Properties and Selection of the Propeller

15.4: Determination of Propeller Thrust

15.5: Rankine-Froude Momentum Theory

15.6: Blade Element Theory

References

Chapter 16: Aircraft Drag Analysis

Abstract

16.1: Introduction

16.2: The Basics of Drag Modeling

16.3: Estimating the Drag of a Complete Aircraft

16.4: Miscellaneous or Additive Drag

16.5: Special Topics Involving Drag

16.6: Additional Information—Drag of Selected Aircraft

Exercises

References

Chapter 17: Performance—Introduction

Abstract

17.1: Introduction

17.2: Atmospheric Modeling

17.3: Airspeed Theory

17.4: The Structural Envelope

17.5: Sample Aircraft

Exercises

References

Chapter 18: Performance—Take-Off

Abstract

18.1: Introduction

18.2: Fundamental Relations for the Take-Off Run

18.3: Conducting the Take-Off Analysis

18.4: Database—T-O Performance of Selected Aircraft

Exercises

References

Chapter 19: Performance—Climb

Abstract

19.1: Introduction

19.2: Fundamental Relations for the Climb Maneuver

19.3: General Climb Analysis Methods

19.4: Aircraft Database—Rate-of-Climb of Selected Aircraft

References

Chapter 20: Performance—Cruise

Abstract

20.1: Introduction

20.2: Fundamental Relations for the Cruise Maneuver

20.3: General Cruise Analysis Methods for Steady Flight

20.4: General Analysis Methods for Accelerated Flight

References

Chapter 21: Performance—Range and Endurance

Abstract

21.1: Introduction

21.2: Fundamental Relations for Range and Endurance

21.3: Range Analysis

21.4: Endurance Analysis

21.5: Analysis of Mission Profile

Exercises

References

Chapter 22: Performance—Descent

Abstract

22.1: Introduction

22.2: Fundamental Relations for the Descent Maneuver

22.3: General Descent Analysis Methods

22.4: Sailplane Glide Performance

References

Chapter 23: Performance—Landing

Abstract

23.1: Introduction

23.2: Fundamental Relations for the Landing Phase

23.3: Database—Landing Performance of Selected Aircraft

References

Chapter 24: Longitudinal Stability and Control

Abstract

24.1: Introduction

24.2: Static Longitudinal Stability and Control

24.3: Refined Horizontal Tail Sizing

24.4: Introduction to Hinge Moments

References

Chapter 25: LAT-DIR Stability and Control

Abstract

25.1: Introduction

25.2: Lateral-Directional Stability and Control

25.3: Directional Stability and Control

25.4: Lateral Stability and Control

25.5: Basics of Roll and Yaw Control

References

Chapter 26: Miscellaneous Design Notes

Abstract

26.1: Introduction

26.2: General Aviation Aircraft Design Checklist

26.3: Faults and Fixes

References

Appendix A: Atmospheric Modeling

A.1: Introduction

A.2: Modeling Atmospheric Properties

Reference

Appendix B: The Aerospace Engineer’s Formula Sheet

B.1: Cost Analysis

B.2: Constraint Analysis

B.3: Weight Analysis

B.4: Power Plant

B.5: Wing Planform

B.6: Tail Sizing

B.7: Lift and Drag

B.8: The Propeller

B.9: The Atmosphere

B.10: Airspeeds

B.11: Take-Off

B.12: Climb, Cruise, and Maneuvering Flight

B.13: Range and Endurance

Appendix C: Design of Biplanes and Seaplanes

C.1: Conceptual Design of Biplanes

C.2: Conceptual Design of Seaplanes

References

Appendix D: Derivation of Landing Side-Constraint

Index

Copyright

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-818465-3

For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Image 1

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisitions Editor: Carrie Bolger

Editorial Project Manager: Isabella C. Silva

Production Project Manager: Sreejith Viswanathan

Cover Designer: Mark Rogers

Typeset by STRAIVE, India

Dedication

I dedicate this book to my five furry feline companions, Baxter, Boo, Oliver, Oskar, and Leo. You have tolerated my shortcomings, yet never expressed judgment or dismay. A better company on this journey I cannot imagine. Thank you for the wonderful memories. You reside in my heart, forever.

Preface to the 1st Edition

The purpose of this book is to gather in a single place a diverse set of information and procedures that are particularly helpful to the designer of General Aviation aircraft. Additionally, it provides step-by-step derivations of many mathematical methods, as well as easy to follow examples that help illustrate their application. The procedures range from useful project management tools to practical geometric layout methods, as well as sophisticated aerodynamics, performance, and stability and control analysis methods.

The design of an airplane generally begins with the introduction of specific requirements: how fast, how far, how many, what amenities, what mission. Once introduced to such requirements, the entry-level designer often asks: What’s next? Where do I even begin? This document provides step-by-step procedures that lead the reader through the entire process: from a clean sheet of paper to the proof-of-concept aircraft. They were selected and developed by the author’s 15-year experience in the aircraft industry, initially as a flight test engineer, then structural engineer, aerodynamicist, and eventually an aircraft designer. Subsequent 4-year experience in academia and in various consulting projects allowed the presentation of methods to be polished based on student and client feedback. In the author’s own design experience, such a book would have been extremely helpful in the form presented here, both as a resource and guide. This book is written with that in mind.

An effective design process answers not only whether the proposed design will meet the desired requirements, but also what remedies are viable in case it does not. During this phase, the speed of analysis is almost always of the utmost, and the competent designer should be able to predict differences between variations of the desired vehicle. However, the design process is multifaceted—it is more than just solving equations—managing the process is also imperative. It is necessary not only to wield the proper tools, but also to know when to apply them. This is particularly important for the manager of the design team; he should always know what step follows the current one and what tools and resources are required.

The book is intended to provide the experienced as well as the aspiring designer with clear and effective analysis procedures. There is already a good collection of well-written college textbooks on aerodynamics, structures, flight dynamics, and airplane design available for the engineering student. Many are mostly written with the student of aerospace engineering in mind and, consequently, often present simple problems inspired more by mathematical convenience than practical situations. Such conveniences are usually absent in industry environment, where problems involve natural processes that do not always accommodate equation friendly shortcuts. The book also offers a large chapter on propellers, a topic many textbooks, sadly, ignore. The propeller is here to stay for the foreseeable future, and this warrants the large space dedicated to it.

This book differs from such textbooks as it is solely written with the analysis of real airplanes in mind. Most of the examples presented involve actual production aircraft, allowing results to be directly compared to published data. This gives the reader a great sense for the accuracy of the various analysis methods. It also provides a number of numerical methodologies that take advantage of the power of the modern desktop or laptop computer. This comes in the form of powerful program snippets and spreadsheet setups intended for analysis work with Microsoft Excel. The book offers the student a thorough introduction to practical and industry-proven methods, and the practicing engineer with a great go-to text. I am certain you will find it a very helpful book and that it will increase your productivity.

Preface to the 2nd Edition

The second edition of this book adheres to the ideals of the original preface. None of these have changed. The book’s primary purpose remains to support the aircraft designer by providing practical and effective scientific methods and procedures. However, as much as I, the author, cherish the first edition, it is indisputable that this edition offers several significant improvements. Some are discussed below.

•I combed through every single paragraph in the first edition to polish the writing. Where possible, I rewrote sentences using more concise language. In other places, I removed text I considered redundant or repeated. This made space for new material.

•The first edition was received favorably by readers and my aircraft design students. End-of-semester class evaluations revealed that some considered the book the best part of the class. However, while observing how the students used the book I discovered there was room for organizational improvements. For instance, Chapter 7 in the first edition, introduced piston engines, gas turbines, and electric motors. The presentation of the gas turbines included thrust modeling, while thrust modeling for piston- and electroprops was presented in Chapter 14, The Anatomy of the Propeller (now Chapter 15, Thrust Modeling for Propellers). This was followed by a discussion about engine installation. In contrast, this edition has each engine-class contained in a separate section. Thrust modeling for gas turbines is now presented in a new chapter, Chapter 14, Thrust Modeling for Gas Turbines. Additionally, the discussion of electric motors in Chapter 7 has been significantly increased. It now includes electric motors, battery technology, and electric system design. This change is driven by the increased popularity of electric fixed wing aircraft and eVTOLs.

•The book is now printed in color. I consider this a significant improvement. Some customers had expressed disappointment that the printed version of the first edition did not offer illustrations in color like the electronic version. I am excited that this option is now available for readers.

•The book now contains a good set of design formulation for electric aircraft. Formulation for initial weight estimation appears in Chapter 6, Aircraft Weight Analysis. As stated earlier, formulation for batteries, electric motors, and system design is given in Chapter 7. Formulation for range and endurance of electric aircraft is presented in Chapter 21, Performance—Range and Endurance..

•Three new chapters have been added. Chapter 14 presents thrust modeling methods for gas turbines. A basic introduction to fluid mechanics and the general thrust equation is also presented in the chapter. Chapters 24 and 25 present longitudinal and lateral-directional stability and control, respectively. The presentation is largely in a review format, which means it is intended for readers with background in stability and control. The chapters offer an assortment of formulas that I have digitized using various graphs in the literature. This offers great advantages for design work that relies on spreadsheets or computer coding. Few things break up the smoothness of the design process like having to read a graph to extract a number. It helps cement this book as a go-to reference for the professional aircraft designer.

•Two appendices have been added. Appendix C provides design information for biplanes and seaplanes. In the first edition, this material was offered online on the publisher’s website. Now, it is a part of the book. Appendix D contains a derivation of a landing distance side constraint for constraint analysis.

•The number of illustrations and photos in the book has increased from 828 to 1011. A large percentage of images that appeared in the first edition were polished in one way or another. As with the first edition, unless otherwise specified in captions, all illustrations and diagrams are created by me.

Finally, this. It has taken close to 3 years of hard work and personal sacrifices to revise this book. I have tried to fix all errors and mistakes found in the first edition. Regardless, it is inevitable that errors and mistakes creep into a large book like this. Thus, I will maintain an erratum that will be made available to the public on Elsevier’s website. Thank you for purchasing my book. I hope it will be helpful in your development work. Please do not participate in intellectual piracy by sharing electronic or any other illegally produced copies of the book. This harms me directly and discourages further improvements in future. Please notify Elsevier of any illegal book-sharing/selling activity by contacting them directly. Thank you for your cooperation.

Acknowledgments for the 1st Edition

Snorri Gudmundsson

A large book like this is a substantial undertaking. It can only become reality with contributions from many individuals and companies who, in one way or another, participated in its making. I want to use the opportunity and thank these individuals and companies for their help in providing various information and support so that I would be able to provide you, the reader, with material of greater depth than otherwise possible.

I want to begin by thanking my editors, Mr. Joe Hayton, Mrs. Chelsea Johnston, and Mrs. Pauline Wilkinson of Elsevier Publishing, for invaluable guidance during the development of the book. I’d also like to thank Dr. Howard Curtis, my fellow Professor of Aerospace Engineering at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, who believed strongly enough in the project to suggest it to Joe.

The following individuals and companies deserve an expression of my gratitude. I want to thank Mr. Don Pointer of the Dassault Falcon Jet Corporation for providing information about Dassault business jets. I also want to extend thanks to Flightglobal.com, Williams International, Price Induction, Hirth Engines, and Electraflyer for material provided by them. I want to thank Mr. Raymond Ore for providing cutaways of the Spitfire and Mosquito aircraft and the Ed Coates collection. I am indebted to my former student, Mr. Phil Rademacher, for the large number of photographs he supplied to the project. Mr. Rademacher is an expert in aircraft recognition and, as such, has won a number of intercollegiate competitions. Phil provided me with an enormous pool of aircraft photos, of which many can be found throughout this book. Another student of mine, Mr. Nick Candrella, also provided selected pictures. A former colleague of mine, Mr. Jake Turnquist, provided selected pictures as well and also deserves thanks. I also want to thank Nirmit Prabahkar, Manthan Joshi, Thomas Ford, Brian Smith, Teddy Li, Matthew Clark, and Fabio An for data collection. I also want to thank Dr. Laksh Naraynaswami for proofreading Chapter 7, The Selection of the Powerplant, and providing priceless guidance regarding turbomachinery and inlet design. I also want to thank Mr. Brian Meyer of Hartzell Propellers Inc. for his contribution to the book. Mr. Meyer provided priceless guidance and help in proofreading Chapter 14, The Anatomy of the Propeller, supplied material, and provided suggestions that made the section much better. I want to further extend thanks to Hartzell Propellers for their permission to use selected material on propellers. I want to thank Mr. Dale Klapmeier of Cirrus Aircraft for permitting detailed information about the SR20 and SR22 aircraft to be presented in the book. I also want to thank Mr. Paul Johnston, Cirrus’ chief engineer, for initial proofreading and helpful suggestions. I want to thank Mr. Bruce Barrett for several anecdotal nuggets from his colorful career as a flight test pilot. Finally, I want to express my gratitude to Professor Emeritus Charles Eastlake who provided most of the material on the development cost analysis of Section 2 in this book, in addition for his proofreading effort and insightful comments.

Acknowledgments for the 2nd Edition

Dr. Snorri Gudmundsson

I want to begin by thanking my editors, Ms. Carrie Bolger and Ms. Isabella Silva of Elsevier Publishing, for their instrumental help with the development of the book. I would also like to thank Mr. Sreejith Viswanathan (and his team) for their fantastic work on the layout of the book.

The following individuals and companies deserve an expression of my gratitude. I want to thank Mr. Don Pointer of the Dassault Falcon Jet Corporation for providing information about Dassault business jets. I also want to extend thanks to Mr. Kristopher Holt of Lycoming Engines for his help regarding piston engine technology. I want to thank Mr. Curtis Landherr of Cirrus Aircraft, Mr. John Sordyl of Williams International, Mr. Jean-Sebastien Mayen of Akira Technologies (current owner of the business that used to be called Price Induction), Mr. Peter Lietz of Hirth Engines, Mr. Michael Korte of Hartzell Propellers, Mr. George Bye of Bye Aerospace, and Captain Gudbjartur Runarsson. I want to thank Mr. Raymond Ore for providing cutaways of the Spitfire and Mosquito aircraft and Mr. Eddie Coates of the Ed Coates collection. I am indebted to my former student, Mr. Phil Rademacher, for the continued access he has given me to his enormously large database of aircraft photographs. Another former student of mine, Mr. Nick Candrella, and a former colleague of mine, Mr. Jake Turnquist, provided selected pictures as well and also deserve thanks.

I want to mention several of my students for the assistance in various research efforts. I want to thank Ms. Shannon Sumpter for help with evaluating the accuracy of the Eastlake Cost Estimation method, Mr. Mahteme Desta for his research of propeller costs, Mr. Alexandru Lopazan for reconciling the abbreviations and equation terms, Mr. Juan Leon for checking the arithmetic of specific examples, Mr. Aldous George and Mr. Lucas Ferrando for helping with the validation of detail weight analysis methods, and Mr. Louis Spier for his research of multielement high-lift systems. I also extend thanks to my student Xinyu Yang for the detailed cutaway of a business jet in Chapter 1, which he created while taking my aircraft design class.

I want to thank Mr. Scott Olson of Northrop Grumman for reviewing regulatory issues in Chapter 1. I also want to thank Dr. Laksh Naraynaswami for proofreading the gas turbine section of Chapter 7, Selecting the Powerplant, and for providing priceless guidance regarding turbomachinery and inlet design. He also deserves thanks for proofreading Chapter 14, Thrust Modeling for Gas Turbines. I also extend thanks to Dr. Jinhuia Liu for proofreading the electric aircraft section in Chapter 7, The Selection of the Powerplant, and providing invaluable advice and guidance on the design of power systems for electric aircraft. I also want to thank my wife, Linda, for proofreading selected chapters.

Disclaimer

Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The author welcomes any information from people who believe their photos have been used without due credit. Note that the inclusion of material from commercial entities in the book does not imply an endorsement by the author. Similarly, inclusion of material by any commercial entity in the book does not imply an endorsement by said entities of any content or opinions expressed.

Inclusion of Cirrus copyrighted material in this work does not imply any endorsement by Cirrus or its Affiliates of the content or opinions expressed herein.

Helpful Notes

Helpful Websites for the Aircraft Designer

The Greek Alphabet

Prefixes for SI Units

Prefixes for SI Units

A Note About Format

This document is organized in a fashion designed to be useful to the reader. For this reason, the background of the document appears in three colors that have specific meaning:

1.The main topic of a section is discussed in a region of white background.

2.The derivation of specific formulae is presented in a region of a

u00-01-9780128184653

.

3.Examples are presented in regions of a u00-02-9780128184653 u00-03-9780128184653 .

The book is broken down further into sections as follows:

4.The book is broken down into chapters and appendices. An appendix contains supplemental material that is not essential to the chapters, but provides an improved insight.

5.Each chapter (and some appendices) is split into sections. Thus, the third section of Chapter 11 is denoted by 11.3.

6.Each section is split into subsections. Thus, the third subsection of Section 11.3 is denoted by 11.3.3.

7.Some subsections are split into focus areas. These are called bullets. Thus, the second focus area in Section 11.3.3 is denoted by 11.3.3(2).

8.Fitting large equations in a two-column layout can be challenging. At times, this is only possible by presenting the equation in a single-column format. In this case, the text flows from the 1st column to the 2nd column above said equation. It then continues to flow in the 1st column below the single-column equation.

A Note About Mass and Force

Often several forms of units of force are presented in the UK system. Examples include lbs (mass or force), lbm (mass), lbf (force), lbst (engine static thrust), lbt (engine thrust), and so on. Usually this is done to distinguish between mechanical and other kinds of forces, but ultimately it is confusing. In this document, the intention is to keep everything as simple as possible. Therefore, the following holds for all units of mass and force:

List of Abbreviations and Common Terms

List of Variables

Note: The term context dependent means there are multiple definitions and further clarification requires additional information presented in the text.