Mines and Miners of Cornwall and Devon: The Tin and Copper Industries

By Anthony Burton

The eminent historian and author of The Rise of King Cotton uncovers the centuries-old story of tin mining in Southern England.

Tin mining has existed in Cornwall and parts of Devon since before the Romans arrived in Britain. In this book, historian Anthony Burton explores the region’s tin mining industry from its earliest period through to the present day.

A specialist in the history of technology, Burton examines the evolution of extraction methods from primitive pick and shovel operations to the later use of explosives, the rise of steam power, and beyond. Burton also looks at the changing politics and economics of the tin mining industry over the centuries.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Open Road Integrated Media
• Release date: Aug 30, 2020
• ISBN: 9781526773395

Anthony Burton

Anthony Burton is a regular contributor to the BBC's Countryfile magazine, and has written various books on Britain's industrial heritage, including Remains of a Revolution and The National Trust Guide to Our Industrial Past, as well as three of the official National Trail guides. He has written and presented for the BBC, acted as historical adviser for the Discovery series Industrial Revelations and On the Rails, and has appeared as an expert on the programme Coast.

Book preview

PREFACE

Like many others not directly engaged in the industry, my interest in the mines and miners of South West England was first aroused during holidays in Cornwall. There was a particular appeal for me, as the study of the development of steam power already fascinated me and the area was vital in that it saw the development of the first practical steam engine and, a century later, the design of the first railway locomotive. And I was also intrigued by the underground world of the miner. Over the years, I have visited mines of many kinds – I have crawled through Neolithic flint mines, filmed in a Roman gold mine, visited salt mines in France and many collieries, both here and in continental Europe. Talking to working miners, I have always been conscious of the pride they took in their work – work most of us would rather leave to others – and impressed by the resilience they and their predecessors have shown in the long struggle for safety and fair recompense for their work. All mines may seem superficially similar, but they are not, nor are all miners alike. The Cornish and their fellow workers have always been unique for their independence and noted for their skills – skills that have found a welcome around the world. Theirs is a very special story, so when John Scott-Morgan asked me if I would be interested in writing their history, I did not have to think about it, but agreed instantly.

A note on units. I have used those that were current at the time, which were the old imperial units: feet and inches; pounds and ounces; pints and gallons and so forth. There are good reasons for this. For example, an engine cylinder was bored as accurately as possible to a given size, which might be 40 inches and not 101.6 centimetres. Equally, the figures quoted for the amount of water pumped from a mine in an hour would be approximated usually quite roughly to thousands of gallons; it is difficult to convey the same result in litres. A fathom is six feet and again, distances have been left in the units which the miners would have thought in every day of their lives.

I am most grateful to Tony Brooks for reading the text and making many useful suggestions and corrections. Needless to say, any remaining errors are all my own.

Anthony Burton

Stroud

Chapter 1

THE ANCIENT WORLD

No one can visit Cornwall or West Devon without at some time or other catching sight of the distinctive shape of an engine house on the horizon. Such buildings suggest, by their sheer number, that they represent a once thriving industry, which indeed they do. They might also give the impression that this was an industry born in the Industrial Revolution and the age of the steam engine and that would be quite wrong. Tin, and to a lesser extent copper, have been mined in these areas for more than 4,000 years. The minerals have, of course, been in the ground for millions of years before man even appeared on the scene. In fact, it was around 200 million years ago that molten material from the magma at the centre of the earth was forced through earlier rocks, and crystallised as it cooled. The vapours from the magma, carried with them vaporised metallic compounds, that were forced up into cracks in the granite, where they too solidified on cooling. Unlike, say, coal, that was laid down in horizontal bands, the veins of copper and tin tended to appear as near vertical veins in the rock.

Mining is probably Britain’s oldest industry. Even before metals were first used, the men of the New Stone Age were making tools and weapons out of flint. They found that the finest material was often under the ground in thick strata, so they began to dig down to extract it. At Grime's Graves in Norfolk, there is a huge Neolithic mine complex. If you go down one of these mines, you descend a shaft on ladders, and from the bottom of that, low, narrow tunnels lead away into the darkness. One doesn’t even crawl through these, but more or less wriggle along on your stomach until the tunnel opens out into an area where the flint was excavated and even here, space is limited, with a roof scarcely more than three feet above you. The men who worked here had the simplest tools – deer antlers for pickaxes and shoulder blades for shovels. We know this because, from one of these pits, one can look through to an adjoining pit, where nothing has been disturbed for over 5,000 years and there are the tools they abandoned. A Cornish miner would recognise the different elements here: the shaft; the level running away from it; and the ‘stope’ where the valuable material was excavated.

Around 2500 BC, people moved out of the Stone Age and started using metal tools and weapons, by which time they had some five centuries and more of mining experience to draw on. The most important material was needed for an alloy that gave its name to this period – the Bronze Age. Copper is useful for many things, but it is quite soft and easily bent. However, it was discovered that if the molten metal is mixed with tin, in proportions varying from 5 to 20 per cent, it becomes harder and stiffer. No one really knows how this important alloy came to be discovered. Indeed, we do not even know how men first hit upon the idea of heating ‘rocks’ to produce metal. One theory is that stones used in hearths included some that were actually containing metal ores, and in the heat the molten metal appeared. This could only happen with metals that have a low melting point, such as tin at 232°C compared with iron that has a melting point of 1,538°C – which is why the Bronze Age lasted for nearly 2,000 years before the technology was available for smelting iron ore.

We have no written records for this long period of our history, but archaeology can tell us a lot and provide evidence that tin was indeed being mined in the South West at this time. The excavation of Bush Barrow, a burial site near Stonehenge, revealed a range of bronze objects, including a pair of daggers that were brought from Brittany, but the materials from which they were made were from England. The barrow is dated to c.2000BC, which suggests that Cornwall and Devon already had a thriving export trade in metals at this early date. Further confirmation appeared in 1999, when two German metal detectors unearthed a find in Saxony that included the remarkable Nebra Sky Disc. The disc itself was bronze, on which were gold figures representing the sun and moon together with a few stars and lines indicating the solstices. Analysis has shown that although the copper came from Austria, the tin was from Cornwall, and the disc has been dated to around 1600BC.

Cornish tradition has it that it was the Phoenecians who were the major traders with Cornwall but there is no archaeological evidence for this and the existence of Cornish tin in the Nebra disc shows that the trade started some centuries before the Phoenicians became a powerful force in the Mediterranean region. There are several accounts of trade with Cornwall, but all written long after the event. Greek historians wrote of the Cassiterides or ‘Tin Islands’ off the coast of Gaul. Strabo (c.64BC to 24AD) in his Geography described them as ten islands, one of which was uninhabited, but he had never actually been to the area himself. He makes no mention of tin trade. Diodorus Siculus, writing in the first century BC but apparently quoting earlier travellers, described the inhabitants of Cornwall as being very friendly, mainly because they were used to trading with foreigners. He describes how they mine and prepare the tin, casting it into blocks and then taking it to an island called Ictis, that can be reached by carts at low tide. From there it is loaded into boats and taken across the Channel and then overland by pack horse to the Mediterranean. No one has identified Ictis but the likeliest candidate is St. Michael’s Mount.

One thing we lack is evidence of the techniques used to obtain the ore in prehistoric times. Centuries of working over the ground have obliterated any traces of early workings. Tin appears naturally as the ore Cassiterite, tin dioxide and was formed when granite pushed through earlier sedimentary rocks. It appears as veins that dip steeply, can be several kilometres long and vary in thickness from 0.5 to 3 metres. It was discovered in the first place because streams washed out some of the ore and brought it to the surface. The ore can be recognised easily, being much denser than other stones found with it. At the Blue Hills tin streaming works, near St. Agnes, they work with material collected from the nearby beach. Perhaps the earliest tin workers also collected material washed to the surface, but eventually it must have become obvious that the material had originally come from some richer source and by following the stream they could have found lodes close to the surface. How far they went underground is not known – Diodorus simply says they got the material from the earth, which suggests some form of mining.

The development of furnaces to smelt iron brought in a new age and bronze was no longer used for tools and weapons. The material did, however, still find a use for ornaments and other small objects, while copper would later be used for coinage. There is evidence that tin was still being mined in Cornwall around 300BC. Chun Castle is an Iron Age hill fort near Penzance and excavations in the 1920s discovered a series of small pits that had been used for smelting, in one of which was a large lump of slag, which proved to be from tin working. When the Romans arrived, new uses for tin were found. They brought with them a new material, pewter, an alloy that has a very high tin content, 85 per cent or more. It was mostly in the form of tableware and its use continued right through the Middle Ages among the wealthier classes. Sadly, little is known about the Roman trade in Cornish tin, and the paucity of Roman sites west of Exeter suggests that there was little impact on the region. The period following the withdrawal of the Romans is generally referred to as the Dark Ages and when it comes to information about mining in the South West, the name is all too apt. We know very little about the amount of activity that was going on and there are no statistics on the quantity of metal produced. There are legends, including the arrival of Joseph of Arimathea to trade in Cornish tin. There are several references to Jews in the tin trade, but it is not clear that the name has the same meaning as it does today, and seems to have been applied more or less randomly to anyone from southern Europe and the Mediterranean. One more reliable source comes from Leontios of Neapolis’ biography of John the Almsgiver, Patriarch of Alexandria at the beginning of the seventh century. He records a ship full of grain being sent to relieve a famine in Cornwall and returning with a large quantity of tin. Nothing else appears in written documents until the early medieval period but, following the Norman invasion, there was an increased demand for metal. More and grander churches were being built and required bells and bell metal is a form of bronze with a much higher proportion of tin than usual, as much as 20 per cent. But it is only in the twelfth century that we begin to get written accounts of the industry. The earliest of these is Richard Carew’s Survey of Cornwall in 1601. There is a long, informative section on the tin industry, which begins by describing the Cornish belief that the tin was deposited during Noah’s flood. Later, he moves onto more recent and reliable history, describing the regulation of the industry in the twelfth century. In the following extracts, the spelling has been modernised for clarity.

‘After such time as the Jews by their extreme dealing had worn themselves first out of the love of the English inhabitants and afterwards out of the land itself, and so left the mines unwrought, it happened that certain gentlemen, being Lords of seven tithings in Blacknoore whose ground were being stored with the mineral grew desirous to renew this benefit: and so upon suit made to Edward, Earl of Cornwall, son to Richard, King of the Romans, he obtained from him a Charter with sundry privileges: amongst which it was granted them to keep a Court, and hold plea of all actions, life, limb, and land excepted: in consideration whereof, the said Lords accorded to pay the Earl a halfpenny for every pound of tin which should be wrought, and that for better answering this tax the said tib should be brought to certain places purposely appointed, and there pieced, coined, and kept, until the Earl’s dues were satisfied.’

This was the start of a period which recognised the Cornish tin industry as having a unique status. This did not, however, apply to the local copper mines. Greater changes were soon to follow.

Richard I has been regarded as a national hero – the Lionheart – in contrast to dastardly King John, but the citizens of the day may have had a less exalted view of the monarch. His crusades cost the country a great deal of money and taxes had to be raised to pay for his overseas ventures. In 1196, Richard was off again leaving the job of running the country to Hubert Walter, who somehow managed to combine the roles of Lord Chancellor, Chief Justiciar and Archbishop of Canterbury. One area where he hoped to raise revenue was among the mines of Devon and Cornwall and he sent William de Wrotham to investigate and appointed him Warden of the Stanneries, giving him a measure of control over the tin mining industry. He found a very disappointing situation, discovering that only around 70 tons of tin were being sent out of the area in a year, which raised a paltry £17 in tax. The Cornish business in particular was languishing, largely because the work was being carried out piecemeal, often by part time miners working small holdings.

De Wrotham realised that the industry needed to be better organised and called together the leading tinners to discuss what needed to be done. He standardised the way in which tin was sold, by creating official marks for half-ton slabs. He increased the rate of taxation and was able to send more money to the hard pressed Lord Chancellor. What he did not do was attempt to improve production. But major changes were under way. When John came to the throne, he was as cash strapped as Richard had been but took positive action to improve his revenue and brought a major change to the Cornish industry. To understand what his reforms meant in practical terms, we need to look at the curious nature of the industry at that time.

From early days mining rights had depended on a system known as ‘bounding’. This allowed prospectors to enter an area and claim a portion for development. In Devon, the copper miners had free access to all land but, in Cornwall, certain areas which belonged to the lords could only be entered with their permission. A Warden was appointed to try and resolve disputes. Large areas of the county were, however, free for anyone to enter. Carew described how the system worked.

‘When a mine (or streamwork) is found in any such place the first discoverer aimeth how far it is likely to extend, and then at the four corners of his limited portion, diggeth up three turfs and the like (if he list) on the sides, which they term Bounding, and within that compass, every other man is restrained from searching.’

The problem was that often the workings were too small to be profitable and many who held tin bounds looked on them as a supplement to their normal incomes, perhaps working smallholdings. The bounds were not necessarily valuable. My wife has Cornish ancestry and one of her forbears, Melchisedech Rogers, born in 1668, had rights on Bodmin Moor. When he died, they were valued in his will as worth less than the family bed.

In order to regulate the trade and encourage entrepreneurs, a new Charter was issued under King John in 1201, in which the tinners were awarded the rights of ‘digging tin, and turfs for smelting it, at all times, freely and peaceably and without hindrance from any man, everywhere in moors, and in the fees of bishops, abbots and counts, and of buying faggots to smelt the tin without waste of forest, and of diverting streams for their works, as by ancient usage they have been wont to do’. It was not just in their working lives that the miners were given a special status. They were no longer under the jurisdiction of a local magistrate, but instead answered to the Warden. It was almost as if they were a self-governing community within the wider world. This was a time when the majority of the poor were serfs, answerable to the lord of the manor. The Cornish miners were, in effect, free men. They were independent and that independence was to be a characteristic that they would carry on down through the ages.

The passing of the Charter had an immediate effect in increasing productivity and in the next chapter we will take a look at the actual nature of the workings in the late medieval and renaissance period.

Chapter 2

THE EARLY WORKINGS

In its earliest form, as practised in the Middle Ages, collecting ore was a comparatively simple process. The tin ore would be washed out of the veins by natural erosion. This was a process that took thousands of years, with the heavier tin ores settling in the valley. The ore particles, being heavier than the surrounding gravel, could easily be separated out by panning. This involves swirling the material round in a dish with water, so that gradually all the lightest material would be washed away, leaving the heavy, valuable ore. Until around 1600, all tin was acquired this way, mainly from Dartmoor. It must have been obvious that the material had washed out of the ground, and might appear at the surface, either in a sea cliff or on a hillside. To get it out of the ground required a new technology – mining. Once again, Carew provides us with a picture of the mining scene in the early years. His description starts by discussing the new form of extraction – streaming, developed into mining. The process starts when the prospectors find the typical heavy, smooth stones on the surface. They then start digging a trench away from that spot, typically 5 to 6 feet deep and 3 to 4 feet wide. Often it appears that the works will arrive at a stream. They then divert it into a new course to reveal the stream bed. Carew was somewhat disapproving:

‘This yieldeth a speedy and gainful recompense to the adventurers of the search, but I hold it little benefit to the owners of the soil. For these low grounds before time fruitful from there having herethrough their wrong side turned outwards, accuse the Tinners injury by their succeeding barrenness.’

Carew then moves on to describe ‘lode working’. The start of the process is similar to that for streaming, locating material, known to Carew as ‘shoad’ near or on the surface. This they believe will have been washed out of some richer source, so they must try and work out where the rich lode might be. Having decided on a likely direction, they move up the slope and dig a shaft, usually 5 to 6 feet long, 2 to 3 feet wide and 7 to 8 feet deep in the hope of reaching the lode. If that fails, they try a different direction and sink another pit and continue sinking pits until they either find a rich source of ore or abandon the area. Even when they do reach an ore bearing area, it has to be of the right sort:

‘They also discover which was the quick ground (as they call it) that moveth with the flood and which the firm in which so much shoad doth lie.’

Ideally, in order to prove profitable, the lode should be around a foot and a half thick, which would be considered rich, but lodes of just a foot in thickness could also yield good profits if they turned out to be part of a more extensive system. It was a matter of fine judgement to decide when an enterprise should be followed through and when it should be abandoned. Carew spelled out the results of making the wrong decision:

‘But you may not conceive that every likelihood doth ever prove a certainty oft divers have been hindered, through bestowing charges, by seeking and not finding, and many undone in finding and not speeding, whiles