Hydrogen Powered Transportation

By Dr. Ayfer Veziroglu

The current status of fossil fuel and alternative energy is a hot topic of today. Many different sides have many different opinions on the transition strategy that will work best as fossil fuel reserves slowly diminish.

Seeing the light at the end of the tunnel for fossil fuels allows us to begin envisioning the role of various alternative fuels to replace these energy sources.

Hydrogen fits into this transition mostly by replacing oil in the transportation sector as the main energy carrier. Natural gas and biofuels seem to be the best short-term solution, but after 2050, hydrogen transportation must become the norm as we move into a sustainable energy sector by 2100. Fuel-cell vehicles will be able to run off hydrogen more efficiently and be far cleaner than conventional gas-powered vehicles.

As production of fossil fuels slows and proven reserves fall, prices will rise and alternative sources will become economically competitive with fossil fuels. Nuclear, geothermal, wind, PV, and wave energy will all be needed to provide for the total global energy demands. A hydrogen platform will also be developed through this century for the transportation sector. Hydrogen will serve as an energy carrier for vehicles and will be used as a form of chemical storage for energy in stationary applications, produced most likely by off-peak excess power.

Based on the above information, all countries in the world can be analyzed to assess their potential to become early adopters for hydrogen energy. Even though a basic statistical approach might not provide very accurate results, it provides an insight on early adopters and the status of countries in terms of several commonly measured properties.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Feb 28, 2017
• ISBN: 9781524582951

Dr. Ayfer Veziroglu

Dr. Ayfer Veziroglu is an esteemed author, born in Turkey, Edirne Ipsala district. She was enrolled into The Marmara University International Business, Istanbul, Turkey, where she chose to pursue a Business Marketing Degree. During her stay at Marmara University, she not only studied as a full-time student, but she was also working full-time. In 1996, just two courses away from her graduation, she emigrated to the United States, postponing her education. However, three years later, she traveled back to Istanbul to finish her studies, where she graduated from The Marmara University in 1999. In 2002, after her graduation from University of Miami Language School, she pursued her Master’s Degree in Management of Technology from University of Miami. After her graduation in 2004, she pursued her Ph.D. in Transportation System, where she received her Doctorate from Institute Superior Tecnico Lisbon, Portugal in 2013. In her Ph.D. work, she has applied System Dynamics Modeling for market penetration of hydrogen-fueled transportation. She has authored / co-authored 11 journal papers, 19 conference papers, 3 invited talks, have co-authored a book chapter, and have co-edited 3 NATO Conference Proceedings. Furthermore, during her career, since 1987, she has worked as a sales representative, administrator, coordinator, research assistant, graduate student supervisor, and financial manager. Now, Dr. Ayfer Veziroglu lives with her husband, Turhan Nejat Veziroglu, and her daughter, Lili Ferruh, in Coral Gables, FL, United States, working as a Financial Manager for the International Association for Hydrogen Energy (IAHE), Turhan Nejat Veziroglu World Hydrogen Energy Foundation, and the International Journal of Hydrogen Energy.

Book preview

Copyright © 2017 by Dr. Ayfer Veziroglu.

Library of Congress Control Number:   2017902139

ISBN:      Hardcover      978-1-5245-8296-8

                Softcover        978-1-5245-8294-4

                eBook             978-1-5245-8295-1

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Any people depicted in stock imagery provided by Thinkstock are models, and such images are being used for illustrative purposes only.

Certain stock imagery © Thinkstock.

Rev. date: 02/14/2017

Xlibris

1-888-795-4274

www.Xlibris.com

757345

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 - Introduction

1.1   Identification of the Problem

1.2   Energy Problem in the Transportation Sector

1.3   Technology diffusion

1.4   Life cycle of the other technologies

1.5   Safety and Security

CHAPTER 2 - State of the Art

2.1   Technical Aspects of Hydrogen System

2.1.1   Hydrogen Production

2.1.2   Fuel Cells

2.1.3   Distribution

2.1.4   Infrastructure

2.1.5   Storage

2.1.6   Safety and Security

2.2   Hydrogen Energy Systems

2.2.1   Hydrogen Production

2.2.2   Hydrogen Storage, Transmission, End-Uses, and Safety

2.2.3   Transition Methodologies

2.2.4   The Impact of a Hydrogen Economy

2.2.5   Section summary

2.3   Hydrogen Filling Stations

2.3.1   Operations and Distribution

2.3.2   Safety

2.3.3   Economics

2.3.4   Section summary

2.4   Hydrogen Fueled Buses

2.4.1   Mechanics

2.4.2   Economics

2.4.3   Public Perception

2.4.4   Section summary

2.5   Hydrogen Fueled ICE Vehicles

2.5.1   Mechanics

2.5.2   Storage

2.5.3   Section summary

2.6   Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles

2.6.1   Technical aspects in the development of FCV

2.6.2   Environmental impacts of FCVs

2.6.3   Economic analysis of FCVs

2.6.4   Comparing different hydrogen vehicle technologies: FCV, BEV and ICEV

2.6.5   Conclusion and future trends

2.7   Fossil Fuels and Energy Security

2.7.1   Global Outlook

2.7.2   Regional Energy Security

2.7.3   Other Energy Security Considerations

2.7.4   Section summary

2.8   Current alternative energy literature survey

2.8.1   Fossil Fuels

2.8.2   Alternative Energy

2.8.3   Hydrogen as an energy carrier

2.8.4   Section summary

CHAPTER 3 -   Barriers and Drivers for Hydrogen Economy

3.1   What are driving factors of hydrogen economy?

3.1.1   Scarcity / Price Concerns for Fossil Fuels

3.1.2   Energy Security

3.1.3   Environmental Impact for Fossil Fuels

3.1.4   Technological Development / Advances in Materials’ Engineering

3.1.5   Changing Social and Market Patterns/Awareness

3.1.6   Trend Towards Decentralized Energy Production

3.1.7   Balanced Economic Development

3.1.8   Policy Constraints on Growth of Hydrogen Economy

3.2   Why can hydrogen be selected as transportation fuel?

3.2.1   Transportation Fuel

3.2.2   Versatility (Combustion; Fuel Cells)

3.2.3   Utilization Efficiency

3.2.4   Safety

3.2.5   Pollution Reduction (Well to Wheel Analysis)

3.3   Main Barriers for Fuel Transitions – The Hydrogen Case

3.3.1   Problems Related to Technology Issues

3.3.2   Market Barriers for Hydrogen Vehicles Membrane Technology

References

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1–1 Estimated external costs of automobile travel. Fuel externalities are a relatively modest cost (Litman 2005)

Figure 1–2 Energy (TJ) flow diagram of Malaysian transportation sector, 2002. (Saidur et al., 2007)

Figure 1–3 Life cycle GHG emissions for each fuel in China (Yan and Crookes, 2009)

Figure 1–4 Principle diagram of the excess electricity production problem (Lund and Münster, 2006)

Figure 1–5 Gross land requirements to fuel current US transportation demand under each of the four fuel paths (Pro et al., 2005)

Figure 1–6 Quantitative analysis-changes in annual costs. This graph illustrates how the four energy conservation strategies affect costs and benefits. Values above the zero line indicate benefits, below the line indicate costs (Litman, 2005)

Figure 1–7 Conceptual model of policy processes involving technological innovation (Collantes, 2008)

Figure 1–8 Survey results of preferred options of energy mix to power commercial vessels, assuming cost is not an issue. (a) Commercial vessels should adopt an energy mix consisting only of renewable energy, (b) commercial vessels should adopt an energy mix consisting of petroleum and renewable energy, (c) commercial vessels should use petroleum as sole energy source, and (d) commercial vessels should use nuclear as sole energy source (Hua et al., 2008)

Figure 1–9 Green gas emissions of different fuel powertrains

Figure 2–1 Likely sources of hydrogen over this century (Thomas, 2009b)

Figure 2–2 Life-cycle fuel costs relative to that of ICEV (Wang et al., 2005)

Figure 2–3 Hydrogen storage technologies and targets (Mori and Hirose, 2009)

Figure 2–4 Ragone plot and P/E ratio for several electric storage systems (Pede et al., 2004)

Figure 2–5 Primary model output showing the greenhouse gas pollution (Thomas, 2009b)

Figure 2–6 The US costs of urban air pollution (Thomas, 2009b)

Figure 2–7 Estimated fractions of light duty vehicle sales versus time (Thomas, 2009b)

Figure 2–8 Estimates of the total societal costs versus time (Thomas, 2009b)

Figure 2–9 Simulated auto industry cash flow from sale of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (Frenette and Forthoffer, 2009)

Figure 2–10 Mass of fuel cell electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles as a function of vehicle range (Thomas, 2009a)

Figure 2–11 Volume of hydrogen storage plus fuel cell volume compared to battery volume as a function of vehicle range (Thomas, 2009a)

Figure 2–12 Ratio of advanced BEV attribute divided by the FCEV attribute for 200- and 300-mile ranges (Thomas, 2009a)

Figure 3–1 Estimates of World Fossil Fuel Production (Veziroglu and Basar, 1974, 1309-1326)

Figure 3–2 Growth rates of climate forcing by individual GHGs CH4 and N2O based on trace gas data available from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory (Hansen et al., 2000)

Figure 3–3 Estimated climate forcings between 1950 and 2000 (Hansen et al., 2000)

Figure 34a-b GHG emissions due to the fact that coal and other fossil fuels are used to produce the electricity (Choudhury et al., 2002)

Figure 35a-b GHG emissions due to the fact that much of US electrical power is derived from coal and other fossil sources (Choudhury et al., 2002)

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1–1 Net energy content of fuels and global warming potential of GHG (Yan and Crookes, 2009)

Table 1–2 Path efficiencies, energy intensities, and land use rates (Pro et al., 2005)

Table 2–1 Performance degradation research focuses for PEM fuel cells

Table 2–2 PEFC CFD programs and recent research implementation

Table 2–3 Recent research in start-up/shut-down procedures for PEFCs

Table 2–4 Analyzed supply pathways (Huang and Zhang, 2006)

Table 2–5 Urban air pollution costs ($/metric tonne) (Thomas, 2009b)

Table 2–6 Estimates of the annual military costs of securing petroleum (US$ billions) (Thomas, 2009b)

Table 2–7 Estimates of the economic costs of oil dependence (US$ billions) (Thomas, 2009b)

Table 2–8 Summary of estimated societal costs of US petroleum dependence (Thomas, 2009b)

Table 2–9 Estimated minimum fueling time for battery EVs and fuel cell EVs (Thomas, 2009a)

Table 2–10 FCV and BEV energy storage system costs

Table 2–11 ICE and FCV fuel cells stacks costs

Table 2–12 ICEV, FCV, BEV, HEV and FCHEV drivetrain costs

Table 2–13 ICEV, BEV and FCV costs

Table 2–14 FCV, BEV, HEV and PHEV production costs over ICEV

Table 2–15 Ratio of total amount of energy required from primary source to provide given vehicle range for FCEV / BEV (Thomas, 2009a)

Table 2–16 Breakdown of major oil reserves by region (BP, 2008)

Table 2–17 Size of farms required to generate 50% of projected electrical and thermal demand by 2020 (Asif and Muneer, 2007)

Table 3–1 Projections for Worldwide Natural Gas Resources (Rühl, 2010)

Table 3–2 Worldwide Fossil Fuel Consumption and Environmental Damage for 1998 (Momirlan and Veziroglu, 2002, 141-179)

Table 3–3 Energy Densities (HHV) and Motivity Factors for Liquid and Gaseous Fuel

Table 3–4 Utilization efficiency factors (Veziroglu et al., 2008)

This book is dedicated to my daughter Lili

The great use of life is to spend it for something that will outlast it.

William James

daughter%27s%20image.jpg

Lili Ferruh Veziroğlu with her puppy Lucky

Nomenclature

Greek Letters

Bars

Superscripts

Subscripts

CHAPTER 1 - Introduction

1.1 Identification of the Problem

Energy resources have always been a key role in the development of societies (Afgan et al., 1998). Since the industrial revolution, energy has been a driving force for the development of modern civilization. This development has been compounded by world population growth, rapid technological development, and increasing energy demand (Midilli et al., 2006).

As fossil fuels meet the increasing energy needs, the development of the technological process results in several problems. Fossil fuel utilization has threatened life on earth through accelerating climate change and pollution, causing thousands of people to die because of health and natural disasters (Johnston et al., 2005). Furthermore, due to the unbalanced distribution of the fossil fuels through the regions and the growth of energy demand through world population growth, global stability has been decreasing. As a result, international tensions, environmental and economical changes, and industrial and economical crises are occurring around the world. It is therefore essential to be aware of the alternatives to fossil fuels that ensure global stability (Midilli et al., 2006).

When the fossil fuel consumption throughout the world is analyzed, it is seen that oil is the most widely used energy resource. If the main reason for this excessive oil consumption is examined, one can see that the transportation sector is the most responsible consumer, with a 70% share by 2035 in the USA (Energy Information Administration, 2012). According to a survey which was done in the United States, vehicles are the most widely owned assets of individuals (Aizcorbe and Starr-McCluer, 1997). Furthermore, the total green house gas emissions from transport in the 27 European member states increased about 28% (from 951 million tonnes in 1990 to 1224 million tonnes in 2009) (Commission, 2012). It is also stated that, introduction of cleaner alternative fuels is a viable way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Ramesohl and Merten, 2006).

Natural gas and biofuels are seen as the most important alternative fuels in the short term, whereas in the long run, a substantial contribution is expected to be delivered by hydrogen (H2) and fuel cell technology. Hydrogen characteristics include being the most abundant element on earth (Schlapbach and Züttel, 2001) and being the cleanest fuel when produced by renewables. When used, these characteristics make hydrogen a sustainable energy solution for the future. Hydrogen with fuel cells offers a promising, potentially higher efficiency with a lower carbon energy-carrying option in vehicles (O’Garra et al., 2005). Hydrogen can also be used in fuel cells and internal combustion engines in transport applications. Because of this, many automotive industries are active in programs for the development of transport powered by fuel cell systems, and they are allocating significant investments to drive the technology towards commercialisation (Conte et al., 2001).

Technology commercialization leads to the consumption of energy. As a result, air pollution and its subsidiary effects have emerged. When it is analyzed, it is obviously seen that the emissions from the transportation sector are mostly responsible for air pollution. This study will design the strategy and route path for an action plan that will lead to a faster implementation of hydrogen energy in the transport sector. Policies, measures and other instruments supporting a defined strategic approach need to be devised, implemented and further monitored through quantitative and qualitative procedures to ensure and effective progress.

The objective of this thesis is thus to prove the feasibility of a strategy for the wide-scale introduction of hydrogen in the transportation sector, and to identify policies, instruments and processes that will configure the action plan to make such a strategy effective.

The thesis is expected to address the following aspects:

• The present situation regarding the available fuels and their environmental impact will be reviewed technically and economically, and the results will be summarized concisely. The main problems of these fuels will be identified regarding energy security and economic development in general.

• Hydrogen economy and the sectors affected by it. Technologies involved will be specified and evaluated.

• Determination of specific problems in the implementation of hydrogen economy in transportation system entails answering the following research questions:

• What are the basic drawbacks of a hydrogen energy system when compared with the existing fuel infrastructure, and how can we solve them in most efficient manner?

• What kinds of problems may emerge after the proposed transition occurs?

• What is the key role of technology transfer in the transition to a hydrogen economy, both in terms of developed and developing countries and economies?

• What are the possible scenarios for the future of the transportation sector after the transition occurs, and what might happen if the transition is too slow or does not happen at all?

1.2 Energy Problem in the Transportation Sector

Between 1971 and 2001, the IEA (International Energy Agency) estimated that the transportation industry increased its energy consumption by 9.3% per year (Jia et al., 2009). As of 2003, it was estimated that the number of registered cars worldwide had reached 589 million, increasing at 2.7% annually. For trucks and buses, this figure is 224 million, increasing at 3.0% annually (Wang et al., 2007). Energy use in the transportation sector is clearly a global issue.

Light duty vehicles have many effects that permeate various levels of society. In 2002, road traffic injuries were the leading cause of injury-related deaths (25%) worldwide according to the WHO (World Health Organization). This ranked ninth in overall causes of death, projected to elevate to sixth in developing countries by 2020. There is recent work suggesting that every additional hour spent in a car each day is associated with a 6% increase in the likelihood of obesity. In urban areas, traffic noise is noted by the WHO as the only factor decreasing the quality of life that has had increased complaints since 1992. In 2002, US urban congestion accounted for 5.7 billion gallons of oil wasted and 3.5 billion hours lost. This wasted oil amounted to 2.8% of the total US transportation sector oil consumption, and the lost hours were worth $63.2 billion (0.57% of US GDP). In one year in France, Austria, and Switzerland, road transport caused 9,947 direct road accident deaths while causing a likely 21,000 indirect premature deaths. Additionally, in many areas such as the Lower Fraser Valley in British Columbia, Canada, light duty vehicles are the largest contributors of total regional emissions of CO, VOCs, CO2, and NOx (Merida et al., 2007).

The Lower Fraser Valley is one area of particular interest in transportation research because of the heavy effects of LDVs (light duty vehicles) on that area. Two million Valley