The Secret War in Laos and General Vang Pao 1958-1975

By Billy G. Webb

From 19611975, the United States found itself embroiled in two wars in Southeast Asia, but for most of that time, the citizens of our country were aware of only one. While scenes from Vietnam made the national news, few Americans knew that their countrymen were also fighting a secret war in the tiny kingdom of Laos. Billy G. Webb's book peels back the layers of secrecy, revealing the truth about a conflict waged below the radar against the relentless forces of Communism. His story celebrates the near-forgotten sacrifices of not just the United States and allied soldiers but courageous civilians as well.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Jun 10, 2016
• ISBN: 9781514486856

Billy G. Webb

Billy G. Webb is a native of Dothan, Alabama, and comes from a long line of family members who served in the U.S. Military. Billy followed that tradition in 1962 when he enlisted in the United States Air Force. Billy served honorably for almost twenty-five years. His service included nine years in Southeast Asia. Billy completed his undergraduate and graduate degrees while serving in the USAF and earned the title Southeast Asia area specialist.

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Copyright © 2016 by Billy G. Webb.

Library of Congress Control Number:   2016906462

ISBN:      Hardcover      978-1-5144-8687-0

                Softcover        978-1-5144-8686-3

                eBook               978-1-5144-8685-6

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Any people depicted in stock imagery provided by Thinkstock are models, and such images are being used for illustrative purposes only.

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Originally published as Secret War.

Copyright 2010

Rev. date: 06/10/2016

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Contents

Introduction

Chapter 1 French Occupation

Chapter 2 Young Vang Pao

Chapter 3 The U.S. Moves In

Chapter 4 The Business of War

Chapter 5 The Seasonal War

Chapter 6 Turning Up the Heat

Chapter 7 The Drug Trade

Chapter 8 Turning Point

Chapter 9 Erosion of Confidence

Chapter 10 The War Grinds On

Chapter 11 Collapse and Aftermath

Epilogue

References

Dedication

This book is dedicated to all who participated in the Secret War in Laos. Whether it was the personal danger faced by American CIA case officers on the ground in Laos or the absence from families of U.S. Military mechanics and support personnel in Thailand. American military pilots and crew members flew into the clutches of extreme danger every single day when they crossed over the mighty Mekong River into Laos. Never once did they flinch or back away from their obligation to fly and fight even though each mission could have been their last. There were the civilian pilots and crew members who worked for Air America, Bird and Son and Continental Air Services. They also flew extremely dangerous air support missions in Laos. Many of those brave souls did not return from hostile encounters with the Communists. Back home in America, moms, dads, wives, sisters, brothers, children, and grandparents waited for their loved ones to return from the unfriendly skies over Laos. Sadly, many did not return, and their families still wait and hope. But sacrifice did not come from just the Americans participating in the war. Lao and Hmong troops and their families also fought valiantly and served honorably. Many lost their lives on the field of battle. And, lest we forget the thousands of Thai military and irregular troops who faithfully served in the Secret War. Without their contribution, the war would have ended much sooner than it did. My personal hope is to someday see the flag of Lao People's Democratic Republic come down in Laos. I also pray that the Communist government in Laos makes a full accounting of our loved ones who haven't yet returned home from the Secret War in Laos.

Special Thanks

I would like to personally thank Mary John Davis for her assistance, encouragement and advice while preparing the manuscript. Mary John tirelessly read every word on each page and provided suggestions and recommendations to improve the content. She edited the entire book, but her greatest accomplishment was encouragement and it took plenty of that to keep me going through the entire process. Thank you, Mary John. You are a treasured friend.

Billy G. Webb

Introduction

For centuries, explorers have traveled the world in search of adventure, fame, wealth and knowledge. Countries have sought to increase their sphere of influence by sponsoring these explorers in their travels to various exotic locales. They hitched their wagons to proposals both reasonable and fantastic on the off-chance that they might find riches. Upon discovering a new land with potential for development and exploitation, the explorers would lay claim to the territory for the country they represented, regardless of whether or not anyone else had claimed it. Although not their fault the natives of the conquered lands routinely faced extermination. Sometimes it was by accident, because of diseases introduced by the explorers, often intentionally. Or the natives felt shunted aside and marginalized.

The country we now call Laos was one of those new lands. Laos was known as the Land of a Million Elephants, a name that graced the land from approximately the fourteenth century to the eighteenth century. It is believed, however, that organized societies had existed in Laos much earlier than A.D.1300. Early documents describe Laos as an agricultural society in which life revolved around subsistence farming, using domesticated water buffaloes.

For much of its history as a nation, Laos had been under the thumb of its neighbors. At varying times, the Chinese, Vietnamese, Cambodians and Thais had ruled Laos, making it difficult for any national identity to evolve. The indigenous population, overlooked and left to their own devices developed what most Westerners considered a laid-back lifestyle. In other words they simply stood back, watched things happen, and, in general, lived life in a relaxed state of mind. They accepted the status quo and were happy enough just to get by. By the mid-eighteenth century, Imperial France occupied Vietnam and Cambodia, and by approximately 1867, they had formed the two countries into a political unit they called the Indochina Union. Later, Laos joined the Union in about 1893, after that the three countries became collectively known as French Indochina. Even though France occupied Laos for the following six decades, the French never established a large presence there.

They did send several hundred French military and civilian personnel to govern the country. Vietnamese civil servants were also hired to oversee all aspects of daily life. The French did little to improve Laos during this period, but they did begin to import immediately many industrial goods from France to sell in Indochina. Unfortunately, Laos was not rich in natural resources, and there was very little to export, except for opium. Realizing the potential for a constant revenue stream the French exported opium, encouraging both its growth and production. The French colonial authorities relied on taxes from the opium trade to fund infrastructure projects and draw revenue from the colonies. Unfortunately, the geography of Laos did not lend itself to the extensive export of any commodity, other than opium.

It is a landlocked country, meaning that there are no direct access points to the ocean. In fact, at first there were no roads to move export goods to a seaport. The only decent roads stretched between the cities of Vientiane (Vin Chin), Luang Prabang, and Savannakhet. Laos is a small country, about the size of Great Britain; it is bordered by Thailand and Myanmar to the west, China to the north, Vietnam to the east, and Cambodia to the south.

The mighty Mekong River is the western border of Laos and acts as an important artery for food and transportation. Unfortunately, it also it does not provide direct access to the ocean. The topography of Laos is mostly mountainous, with typical elevations above sixteen hundred feet. The terrain is dominated by steep terrain and narrow river valleys to the north. The southern panhandle, however, is fairly level and is conducive to agricultural development; though ultimately, only about 4% of the total land mass of Laos is suitable for cultivation.

Laos experiences a tropical monsoon climate with heavy rains from May to October of each year, a cool, dry season from November to February, and a hot, dry season during March and April. Rainfall varies by as much as 50% each year, making rice production unreliable; while temperatures range from a high of 104 degrees Fahrenheit in March to 41 degrees Fahrenheit in the upland regions in January.

Three basic ethnic groups make up the population of Laos. The largest group is the ethnic Lao. This group represents about two-thirds of the population and is composed primarily of Thai people who migrated to Southeast Asia from China in the fifteenth century. This ethnic group resides predominately in the lowlands of Laos. The second ethnic group is the mid-slope, Lao.

They are dark-skinned people, possibly related to the Kyaks of Borneo, who migrated to Laos in approximately the seventeenth century. At one time, they were considered to be at the bottom of the social pyramid and were referred to simply as Kha, meaning slave. The third ethnic group is the Highland, Lao. They are a mixture of Chinese, Thai, Tibetan and Burmese mountain tribes; the indigenous Hmong are a part of this group.

This highland Lao group prefers to live at the higher elevations, and they have their own distinct languages and reject, the social values of the other Lao ethnic groups. In fact, most Hmong people even reject the official religion of Laos, Theravada Buddhism, altogether.

Buddhism was officially introduced to the country in the sixteenth century by the king of Laos. But there is evidence to suggest that the nation's conversion to Buddhism took place gradually over the centuries, with the first conversions dating back to about the ninth century. There are many beautiful temples in Laos, and Buddhism remains a stabilizing factor in a country otherwise consumed by conflict.

By the seventeenth century, Laos had entered a period of decline, and in the eighteenth century Siam (now Thailand) established functional control over Laos. The Thais divided Laos into three separate states, centered on the royal capital of Luang Prabang in the north, Champassak in the south, and Vientiane in the center. Vientiane is the political and business capital of Laos.

On the political side of Laos, factional bickering and disharmony were a national tradition. The kingdom united only once in its history, from about 1353 to the mid-1600s. The Japanese unsuccessfully tried to reunite Laos during World War II, and the French tried it again after World War II. However, by then the governing elite had become so factionalized there was no central voice to speak for the entire country. In Luang Prabang, the king received lip service from everyone.

Next door, in neighboring North Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh had founded the Indochinese Communist Party in 1930 and had begun to recruit disaffected Lao and Vietnamese followers into the party in 1936. Later, in 1946/47, Kaysone Phomvihan was recruited by the Communist party while attending law school in Hanoi. In 1950, the Communist movement in Laos formed a quasi-military force called the Pathet Lao and recruited Prince Souphanouvong as its leader. France and Laos later signed the Franco-Lao Treaty in 1953, establishing Laos as a sovereign and independent country.

The treaty established a monarchy with Sisavang Vong as its king. Three indigenous Lao groups then emerged and contended for power. First, we have Souvanna Phouma who led the Neutralists. Prince Boun Oum led the Rightists and the leader of the Leftists was Prince Souphanouvong.

Ultimately, two of the royal offspring, Souvanna Phouma, the Neutralist, and Souphanouvong, the Leftist, emerged to take control of the government. The older brother, Souvanna, was willing to work towards a gradual independence under the French. His younger brother by eleven years, Souphanouvong, was impatient and joined North Vietnam's Communist army, the Viet Minh. He adopted their ways and learned to fight with them. Boun Oum ultimately grew frustrated, gave up and moved to Thailand in exile to escape the constant squabbling and upheaval.

The early history of the Hmong (Mung), who play an important role in the recent history of Laos, is difficult to trace. However, one thing is sure: the theories placing their origin in Mesopotamia, Siberia or Mongolia are false. In the nineteenth century, the Hmong lived in the Yunnan Province of southwest China. Migration patterns suggest the Hmong had lived in southern China for at least 2,000 years before migrating to the mountains of Laos.

Beginning in approximately 1750, the Hmong migrated to Southeast Asia, following mountain ranges southward to new mountain settlements in Laos, Thailand, Burma and Vietnam. The Hmong feared persecution by the Chinese, and they feared reprisal by the ethnic Lao. For that reason, they seldom ventured into the cities and towns of northern Laos. They did not speak the Lao language, and they did not have money to purchase goods and services.

The ethnic Lao looked down their noses at the Hmong and considered them the lowest form of humanity. They were called, Meo, the Lao term for the barbarian. While the Hmong were still in China, Dutch and Portuguese missionaries introduced them to the only modern tools they adopted into their way of life: the steel knife and the long-barreled musket.

In the 1960s, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began to recruit the indigenous Hmong in Laos as guerrilla fighters to help the United States. The Hmong troops took the name, Special Guerrilla Units, or Lao irregulars. Vang Pao led the Hmong because he was a Hmong himself. The CIA used the Lao irregulars as a counterattack force to block the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The Trail was the main artery for the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) to move troops and supplies to South Vietnam. The Lao irregulars also assisted in the rescue of downed American pilots and took part in frontline fighting under the direction of CIA case officers. As a result, they suffered a high casualty rate in personnel killed, injured and disabled.

In his book, Nation of Sheep, William J. Lederer describes Laos thus: "Laos is not rich in natural resources. However, strategically and politically it is the key to a treasure chest, a magic chunk of territory which borders six important nations. Laos is a corridor, and access point, to Thailand, South Vietnam, Malaya, Burma, and Cambodia. It is the northern point of a natural highway the Chinese Communists would like to follow as far south as Indonesia."

Laos may well be the foothold by which China can open the door to Southeast Asia's rice bowl. Its vast oil reserves and untapped mineral deposits, as well as a supply of labor, is greater than the United States. If Red China gained this rich peninsula that is just south of Laos, she would also occupy a strategic position flanking Australia, New Zealand, and India. It would allow her to snuff out Japan's Southeast Asia trade, forcing Japan to join the Communist axis. For that reason, Laos is of great importance¹.

As the second half of the twentieth century began, Laos was in for an even more tumultuous experience as Southeast Asia tried to establish its identity. The French and British empires lost their hold on Asia, and the Allies soundly defeated Japan. China was spreading Communism throughout Southeast Asia with the assistance of the Soviet Union. Against this backdrop our story begins.

Image%201%20Southeast%20Asia.jpg

Map of Southeast Asia

(Photo from Author's collection)

Chapter 1

French Occupation

As France and Great Britain built what would eventually become global empires in the post-Renaissance world, they naturally looked eastward in search of opportunities for trade and expansion. By the year, A.D.1600, Great Britain had established trade relations with China and profited handsomely. Not surprising, the Britons didn't care to share China, and vigorously blocked any continental efforts to enter into the Oriental trade. Hence, France decided to explore an indirect approach in their efforts to tap into the lucrative Chinese market.

French authorities concluded that if they could find a back door into China by way of Laos and the Mekong River, they could share in the vast profits up for grabs in China. Also, Laos itself may offer excellent trade potential. To get a feel for the terrain, in 1868 France sent an expedition up the Mekong River to investigate the feasibility of using the river as a trade route into China. After two years of navigating the river and its unpredictable currents, as well as exploring jungle trails on foot, the expedition produced a report explaining the great difficulties associated with reaching China via the so-called back door.

Undeterred, the French continued to send expeditions up the Mekong River, drawing maps and gathering ore samples for roughly eighteen years. As a result of these explorations the French established an official presence in Luang Prabang, the Royal Capital of Laos in approximately 1861. Like it or not, Laos had, by default, officially become a part of the Empire of France. They joined Tonkin (northeast Vietnam), Annam (Central Vietnam), South Vietnam, and Cambodia.

In approximately 1872, hundreds of disgruntled Chinese Yellow Flag mercenaries struck back by invading northern Laos. These hooligans were hired guns in the employ of a warlord. Their pay came in the form of booty looted from Lao villagers and townspeople. There were also Black Flag mercenaries in northern Vietnam fighting against the French, and looting every town they passed. And, it was not uncommon for the groups of different colored flags to also attack each other.

Years later, in approximately 1893, the French recruited the indigenous Hmong to help them drive the Flag troops out of Laos, and they were successful. For their efforts, the Hmong gained a degree of respect from the French. The official seat of the French government for this group of nations, called Indochina, was Hanoi. At this juncture in history, colonization was the order of the day for European Forces occupying foreign lands. Not only did colonization give the Europeans more political influence over their far-flung territories, but also they stood to benefit economically. Vietnam's fertile deltas assured profitable returns from harvesting and selling rice, tobacco, indigo, tea and coffee, not to mention the potential of the rubber plantations. Also, Cambodia, with its fertile deltas, also produced rice, fish, rubber, and timber, all of which would add to France's wealth.

And then there was the little country of Laos. Laos had no major exports, and the population consisted primarily of subsistence farmers tilling small plots of land where they grew vegetables, rice, and opium. The latter was essentially the only cash crop; therefore, France took control of the opium trade and made certain that the sale of the drug remained legal.

The French military even managed the opium business themselves and used some of its profits to fund their military operations; nevertheless, Laos was an economic disappointment to the French. For the people of Laos, adjusting to daily life under French rule was not difficult. In fact, the Lao benefited culturally from the French. Many Lao still speak French, and France left its architectural contributions behind in the form of many public and private buildings that still exist today.

The French also rewarded faithful service with educational opportunities for affluent Lao people, at schools and universities in France. That beneficial relationship continued until World War II but it came to an abrupt end in 1940, when France surrendered to the Nazis in Paris, and a pro-Nazi government established its base in Vichy, France. The Vichy Government subsequently granted Japan military access to Indochina. The purpose of Japan's presence in Southeast Asia was to blockade China and prevent it from importing arms, fuel and tens of thousands of tons of war supplies each month.

In September 1940, Japan and the government in Vichy signed an accord allowing Japan to establish military bases in Indochina, and to have transit rights in Southeast Asia. The accord also authorized Japan to station thousands of troops in Indochina, with a cap on troop strength at twenty-five thousand. The agreement barred Japanese air and naval Forces from Indochina, except as allowed by the Accords. As expected, Japan ignored the agreement and immediately brought in its air and naval Forces. Their publicized goal was to create a Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, comprised of Japan, Manchuria, China, and parts of Southeast Asia.

The Great East Asia sphere would set up a new international order seeking co-prosperity for Asian countries, free from Western colonialism and domination. In other words, Asians would work with other Asians to provide goods and services at low prices. In truth, however, Japan was only concerned with satisfying its own needs and intended to use Great East Asia as a means to step up their aggression in Southeast Asia.

The Japanese also intended to use Great East Asia as a front to manipulate local populations and economies for the benefit of Imperial Japan. But other Asian nations quickly saw through the façade revealing Japan's true designs, and ultimately, the plan failed miserably. Nonetheless, the Japanese plans in Indochina went forward. They occupied the region, exploited the people and took what they wanted in the same brutal fashion they had displayed when they occupied Nanking, the Philippines, and elsewhere.

In Laos, the Japanese were especially cruel, forcing men, women and children into slavery under the worst of conditions. Japan's occupation of Indochina was incomplete, however, because they lacked enough trained professionals to handle the administrative issues resulting from the racial and linguistic complexity of the region. Therefore, the Japanese allowed the French, already in-country, to stay and handle the day-to-day affairs of government. Under the Vichy government, which lasted from 1941 to 1945, the French Governor-General of Laos was a man by the name of Jean Decoux, who found himself stymied during the early stages of the Japanese occupation.

Decoux was unable to acquire aid from other sources because all contact with the outside world had been curtailed by Japan, so he was forced to yield to their demands---or at least pretend to do so. By the end of 1941, Japan's hold on Indochina had been relaxed because of their limited resources. Decoux took advantage of the situation and raised his own private army. He even convinced Japan that it was to their advantage to support the newly-formed army by providing them with arms and ammunition.

Next, Decoux set up the Mission Franco-Japanese in 1942, supposedly to act as a liaison agency between Japan and Laos. In reality, however, it was an added layer of government, designed to form a bottleneck to slow down any action on Japanese demands.

After 1942, Japan became wary of Decoux and suspected that he was secretly supporting the Allied Forces. They accused Decoux of failing to fire on American aircraft, and of harboring Allied aviators shot down over Laos. Actually, he was doing both. In late 1944, the French, who were now free of the Vichy regime, secretly dropped Commando Forces into the mountains of northern Laos in preparation for an offensive to retake the country.

By March of 1945, Japan was at war with France again, and the Japanese combed the countryside in Indochina looking for French military and civilian personnel. They imprisoned all known French officials and administrators and continued their roundup into the summer of 1945. To instill fear among the Lao public, the Japanese, on one occasion paraded five French captives through the streets of Lao villages in full sight of the villagers.

The Japanese tethered the French captives and had strings run through their noses. The Japanese soldiers led the prisoners down the street, just as they would herd livestock. The soldiers would pull the strings, causing the French prisoners to jerk violently, screaming in pain, with blood pouring from their noses. Other reports indicated that the Japanese also used the French prisoners to pull plows in the fields in place of water buffalos.

The Japanese also used extreme measures in their attempts to eradicate the French influence and instill fear in Laos. Any Lao citizen caught aiding the French could expect summary execution. The Japanese soldier would simply walk up to the accused person, put a gun to their head, and pull the trigger---killing him right there where he stood, for everyone to see.

By the summer of 1945, the French commandos were already performing covert operations in the hills and mountains of northeastern Laos with support from the Hmong like young Vang Pao. With commandos in place, the French and Hmong irregulars would intercept Japanese supply convoys coming into Laos through a mountain pass at Nong Het in northeastern Laos. V.P. and his men would blow up the bridges and ambush the Japanese soldiers entering Laos. Over time, the Hmong commandos were so effective that the Japanese firmly believed their attackers came from a secret base somewhere in the area, where thousands of French troops resided.

Image%202%20Route%207%20from%20North%20Vietnam%20to%20Nong%20Het%20Laos.jpg

Route 7 from North Vietnam to Nong Het, Laos²

(Photo from Author's collection)

In August 1945, the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Japan, announcing that it was only a matter of days before the Japanese would surrender. Hearing the news, some Japanese troops stationed in Laos immediately committed suicide en masse, by using hara-kiri (ritual disembowelment) and by blowing themselves up with their grenades. Not all the Japanese troops killed themselves, however; many marched towards Hanoi, a place they perceived as safe. But not many Japanese soldiers made it out of Laos alive. They simply vanished along the way. The Hmong irregulars cleverly explained the disappearances by saying that the Japanese were taken away by the wind.

In the meantime, to the east, the wily and persistent Viet Minh (Communists), under the leadership of Ho Chi Minh, were busy increasing their strength and improving their fighting capabilities in the Tonkin area. They were growing stronger by the day, and weapons and ammunition were flowing to them from China and Russia.³

Shortly after the end of World War II, the Chinese Kuomintang (Nationalist) Army arrived to oversee the repatriation of the Japanese Imperial Army. Later, on 2 September 1945, Ho Chi Minh became President of North Vietnam and proclaimed the formation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam to replace the name French Indochina. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam, headquartered in Tonkin, quickly formed a legislature and held elections.

Shortly after that, the existing government's titular head, Bao Dai, the pro-French Emperor, officially abdicated, recognizing the Democratic Republic of Vietnam as the legitimate government. A few months later, a meeting was held, and the French, Chinese and North Vietnamese came to a three-way understanding. The French agreed to relinquish certain rights in China, while the Vietnamese agreed to the return of the French, in exchange for promises of independence within the French Union.

The Chinese then boycotted the meeting, and the French and Viet Minh continued their discussions. The talks later broke down, resulting in almost ten years of war pitting France against North Vietnam. This conflict became known as the First Indochina War.

At the beginning of the conflict, the French Army possessed a high-level of confidence that they would easily defeat the Viet Minh. After all, France was a wealthy Western nation that boasted a modern army with tanks, aircraft, ships, guns and sophisticated communications equipment. They also had the famed Foreign Legion, whose fighting skills were legendary.

Perhaps ironically, in light of their quick surrender to the Nazis in 1940, the French were convinced they knew everything related to warfare and the prosecution of the war. After all, they were a sophisticated force fighting a bunch of little guys hiding in the jungle with limited supplies of antiquated light weapons.

In hindsight, it's clear that the French approach to warfare with the Viet Minh appeared to be fatally flawed from the start. In his 1964 book "Street without Joy", Bernard B. Fall observes that the French did not understand the uniqueness of the war, with Vietnam and they failed to adapt to it. They armed, equipped and trained for the European style of warfare known as Set-Piece Battle.

Their tactical approach was to select an objective and then to set off for the target with all their tanks, cannons, troops, and equipment. When they reached their target, they would engage the enemy, overpowering their opponents using superior firepower and a large military force. Then they would move on to the next objective.

Their strategy looked good on paper, but as they soon learned, much to their chagrin (and as the Americans learned later), the Viet Minh did not cooperate by simply sitting and waiting for the French. There were no front lines in Vietnam and the Communists stayed mobile at all times. There were only two instances where set piece battle worked to the advantage of the French. And, as Bernard Fall observes, Terrain and people triumph over technology.

In other words, French armor and firepower became a burden in the rugged terrain when fighting against the highly-mobile Viet Minh troops.⁴

The fact that their mechanized French Army could only travel on improved roads greatly inhibited their offensives, limiting their ability to engage the enemy in the hills and the jungle. The practice allowed the Viet Minh to engage the French at a time and place of their choosing. And if the engagement wasn't going the way the Viet Minh wanted it to go, they would break off fighting, and melt away into the jungle terrain. This hit-and-run style of warfare would, in the end, be the key to victory for the Viet Minh.

The French failed to adapt to the existing environment and did not use tactics and equipment which would allow them to be mobile and directly capable of responding to the Viet Minh threat. Instead, they continued to allow the limits of their machinery to dictate their strategy. If no roads existed, the French would build new roads, or in some cases, improve existing roads.

But just beyond the roads there was tall grass, rice fields, and the ever-present and almost impenetrable jungle. Mechanized equipment could not perform in the rough terrain alongside the roadways and the Viet Minh wouldn't cooperate by staying within sight on the roads at all times.

Unbeknownst to the French, there were existing foot trails and paths lacing through the jungles and hills. The Viet Minh used this informal network to evade the French time after time. In the meantime, the French would rumble along the roads, kicking up dust with all their noisy mechanized equipment as they traveled to their objectives. In response, the Viet Minh would follow along on a nearby trail, on foot, invariably arriving at their destination before the French. Then the Communists troops would rest and wait for the perfect opportunity to attack.

Along their network of trails, the Viet Minh wisely established strategically-located way stations where they could rest, regroup, treat the injured, and re-arm as necessary for their next engagement.⁵

Unlike the Viet Minh, the French did not have the luxury of aid or way stations. They were forced to take everything they needed with them, based on the expected duration of the mission. For that reason, the average French soldier suffered a heavy burden because he was weighed down with equipment and ammunition while Viet Minh soldiers traveled the trails only carrying what they needed for that day.

The French did, however, establish military outposts, or strong points throughout North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and, to a lesser extent in Laos. The staff at these outposts consisted of small French military units, augmented by local indigenous personnel. But these outposts turned out to be more of an obstacle than an asset to the French. They were easy targets for the Viet Minh because they lacked staffing and supplies. In other words, they were sitting ducks. It was not uncommon for the Viet Minh to launch campaigns in which they easily destroyed outpost after outpost, killing and capturing most of the French troops. They also picked up French weapons and ammunition along the way, left behind, by the fleeing French.

But, where was French air support during all this? They did have an Air Force, albeit not a particularly effective one. The French pilots lacked confidence because they considered their aircraft to be little more than death traps. And, even if they didn't die in a crash, going down in enemy territory was considered a death sentence.

Even with survival equipment, it was unlikely the pilot would survive if captured by the Viet Minh because the French lacked an organized airborne search and rescue capability.

At the beginning of the First Indochina War, the French possessed approximately sixty British-manufactured Spitfires, constructed of wood and canvas components. The Spitfires didn't hold up well in tropical climates, and they rotted away in the humid conditions in Southeast Asia. In addition to the Spitfires, the French had a few German Junkers (transports) for hauling cargo, and dropping bombs. The French also used other aircraft like the Morane L-5s, for aerial reconnaissance and they used American made Catalina Flying Boats for aerial surveillance along the coastal areas.

Later, in 1951, additional American aircraft became available to France through the U.S. Military Assistance Program. The United States provided B-26 bombers, C-47 cargo aircraft, C-119 transports, Hellcat and Bearcat fighter-bombers, and a dozen or so helicopters. But even with all the additional aircraft provided by the United States, France still failed to develop any real air capability in Indochina. They did make good use of the C-119 freighters, however, effectively using them to move supplies and equipment to airfields capable of receiving them.

The C-47 transports also proved valuable in hauling cargo and they served as medical evacuation transports. But, with their limited payload it was more advantageous to use the larger C-119s⁶. Even though the French had a limited air capability, the Viet Minh was able, for the most part, to stay out of the way of the French reconnaissance and fighter/ bomber aircraft. North Vietnam's network of trails and footpaths were well-concealed from view, and if additional camouflage was required, it was provided by Viet Minh logistics specialists.

Notwithstanding, the war continued through the late 1940s into the early 1950s. The French still lumbered up and down the roads in a cloud of dust while the Viet Minh patiently waited to strike at a time and place of their choosing. They would then engage the French and inflict heavy casualties, melting away into the hills at their convenience, leaving the dead and dying French soldiers behind. Understandably, the human and financial toll wore the French down.

In fact, France found it increasingly difficult to fund the First Indochina War, particularly as the French citizens back home grew weary of the fighting and pressured their government not to continue bankrolling it. Who else, then, could help? Well, there were Great Britain and the United States, to name two possible sources. But the British detested the French and contributed very little to their effort in Southeast Asia.

While Great Britian wavered, the United States continued to contribute millions of dollars to the French for the prosecution of the war in Vietnam. In the following three years, America provided the French with even more money each year, above and beyond the cost of the aircraft provided by the United States. But there's more: the United States also provided the French with several hundred armored fighting vehicles, thousands of transport vehicles, and about 200 naval vessels, in addition to thousands of lesser items.

In Laos, the French had not previously spent all that much money on the war against the Communists because there had been very little going on from a military standpoint. France did have a few military outposts scattered around the countryside and were obligated to protect the cities of Vientiane and Luang Prabang. Their hope was that the Lao would form a government, with assistance from Paris, and take care of their own internal security problems. Laos did form the Royal Lao Government in 1947, but it was ill-equipped and lacked funds to raise a standing army. To begin with, the Lao were not a war-like people and they had no experience in governing or fighting.

Later, in 1949, a Franco-Lao agreement granted the new Lao government authority to raise an army they named, aptly enough, the Lao National Army.

After Laos formed their government and granted the authority to raise an Army, France facilitated the training of indigenous military leaders and permitted the United States to provide the Lao with small arms. There was one catch, however: the weapons provided to the Lao had to pass through French hands before reaching the Lao.

The United States was eager to help, and sufficient quantities of M-1 rifles, M-2 carbines, ammunition and military explosives soon began to flow into Laos. This allowed the French time to concentrate on fighting the Viet Minh in Vietnam, but the respite did not last long. The Resistance Committee of Eastern Laos was formed later in the year. It was the forerunner of the Pro-Communist, Pathet Lao and was backed by the Viet Minh. With the formation of the resistance committee, France grew nervous. A year later, the Resistance Committees rallied over one hundred local troops capable of fighting for the Viet Minh in Laos.

In 1952, the Viet Minh initiated attacks on French and Lao units in northeastern Laos near the town of Sam Neua. In April 1953, a Viet Minh force of ten battalions entered northeastern Laos and initiated a battle with help from the Resistance Committee. Some of these Communist troops used the trails through a valley called Dien Bien Phu to reach Laos, even though there were other available routes. Fortunately for the French and the Lao Army, the monsoon rains came early that year, causing the Viet Minh to retreat to North Vietnam and wait for the next dry season before initiating any large-scale attacks.

On 13 August 1953, American officials announced that the Viet Minh was supporting several pro-Communist Lao units called Pathet Lao in its stepped-up activities in Laos. The Americans also reported that the Pathet Lao units were instilling fear in the Lao people by eliminating perceived traitors, hoping to gain the support of Communist sympathizers in the local population, while conducting intensive intelligence operations against French units.

Reports also indicated that it was the first indication that the Pathet Lao movement led by Prince Souphanouvong was also receiving support and allegiance from some of the indigenous Lao in the Sam Neua area⁷. Apparently, indoctrination into Communism could be the next step in winning over the disaffected Lao villagers.

As a result, the war in Indochina was stalemated. But, casualties continued to mount, and the costs