Excellent Research Methods

By Peter James Kpolovie

EXCELLENT RESEARCH METHODS is the 2018 Award Winning Book in Education/Academic/Nonfiction category in the 2018 NEXT GENERATION INDIE BOOK AWARDS that is sponsored by the INDEPENDENT BOOK PUBLISHING PROFESSIONALS GROUP in the United States. The Award Medals and Certificate are attached to this email.

This book is absolutely for everyone who is truly interested in identifying and solving an important problem in human life. It has marshaled the entire step-by-step procedures for arriving at empirical solutions to any chosen problem. In virtually every research situation everywhere, for everyone in almost all spheres of human endeavor, at least some of the research methods and designs in this book will work perfectly well. There are no limits to what one can accomplish in knowledge discovery by mastering and correctly applying the research methods thoroughly articulated robustly in this book. Excellent Research Methods serves as a most satisfactory answer to the ever fresh and extremely important question on the minds of numerous persons that beyond introduction, what is research? It guides to ensure that research works are able to completely meet the noble global goal of research, which is problem resolution. Virtually, all pertinent information on research methods, in the best sense of it, is exhaustively presented in the book. Grab a copy, read it voraciously with undying passion to know, resolute determination to apply, and total commitment to execute research and be reckoned among the great individuals with enormous indelible extraordinary contributions to knowledge advancement.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Partridge Publishing Africa
• Release date: Jun 1, 2016
• ISBN: 9781482824995

Peter James Kpolovie

The author, P. J. Kpolovie, is a professor of educational measurement and evaluation in the University of Port Harcourt. He is the director of academic planning, research, and control unit of the University. He is an accomplished product of University of Port Harcourt and an expert in psychological testing, educational measurement, and evaluation. His PhD dissertation on validation and standardization of culture fair intelligence test for use in Nigeria won the best doctoral thesis award by the National Universities Commission in 2002. He also won the prestigious University of Port Harcourt College of Graduate Studies’ Silver Jubilee Award of Excellence in 2007, in addition to winning the Distinct African Gold Award (DAGA) by WDG, in collaboration with Peak Laurels Magazine, in 2015 and the Common Wealth Scholarship in 1994. From 2003 to 2006, he successfully served in the Bayelsa State Executive Council, a period that the State recorded unparalleled infrastructural development. P. J. Kpolovie has over thirty-five national and more than forty international publications in professional journals. He is a member of the board of editors or team of reviewers of a number of international journals. Some of his other publications include seven groundbreaking books: Educational Management in Developing Economies (2012) and Handbook of Research on Enhancing Teacher Education with Advanced Instructional Technologies (2015), both of which are available online; Test, Measurement and Evaluation in Education (2014); The Making of the United States of America: Lessons for Nigeria (2013); Educational Reforms without Evaluation Designs: Nigeria at Risk (2012); Statistical Techniques for Advanced Research (2011); and Advanced Research Methods (2010). His research interests include use of information and communication technology in education and in data analyses, educational evaluation, improvement of human learning, educational management, and test development, validation, and standardization. He could be reached via [e-mail] or [phone].

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Copyright © 2016 by Peter James KPOLOVIE.

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Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

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Dedicated to my darling wife, Mrs Duduna Peter Kpolovie, and dear son, Genius Peter Kpolovie, for their kind understanding and unquantifiable motivation during yet another ‘book year’.

Brief Contents

1. Introduction

2. Experimental Research

3. Experimental Research Designs

4. Quasi-Experimental Research

5. Correlational Research

6. Evaluation Research

7. Action Research

8. Ex Post Facto Research

9. Triangulation Research

10. Single-Subject Research

11. Historical Research

12. Ethnographic Research

13. Survey Research

14. Instrumentation Research

Contents

1. Introduction

Definition of Research

Research is goal oriented, aimed at meeting man’s needs

Research is characterised by objective and controlled observation

Research is Statistical

Research Is Scientific

Problem identification and hypothesis formulation

Experimental design

Execution of the experiment and data collection

Data analysis, hypothesis testing, and results presentation

Reporting or communication of the research results

Research is characterised with theory and verification

Research ultimately aims at correct description, explanation, prediction, and control of future occurrences

Description

Explanation

Evidence of covariation of events

Time-order relationship

Elimination of confounding or extraneous variables

Prediction

Control of future occurrences

Research demands careful recording and accurate reporting

Research can only be done by the self-disciplined, curious, persistent, and objectively minded

Self-discipline

Curiosity

Persistence

Objectivity

Review Questions

2. Experimental Research

Key Concepts in Experimental Research

Variable

Independent variable

Dependent variable

Extraneous variable

Techniques for Controlling Extraneous Variables

Randomisation

Matching

Holding of variables constant

Incorporation into the design

Yoked control

Equation of subjects

Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA)

Counterbalancing

Complete counterbalancing

Incomplete counterbalancing

Intrasubject counterbalancing

Randomised counterbalancing

Control of experimenter effects

Control of subject effects

Experimental validity

Internal validity

External validity

Threats to Experimental Validity

Review Questions

3. Experimental Research Designs

Randomised Between-Subjects After-Only

Experimental Research Design

Randomised Between-Subjects Before-After

Experimental Research Design

Randomised Solomon Four-Group Design

Randomised Between-Subjects Factorial Design

Randomised Six-Group Experimental Design

Within-Subjects After-Only Experimental Research Design

Choice of a Most Appropriate Experimental Design

Faulty Experimental Designs

One-Group Posttest-Only Design

Single Group Pretest-Posttest Design

Static-Group Comparison Design

Review Questions

4. Quasi-Experimental Research

Nonequivalent Control Groups Quasi-Experimental Design

Simulated Before-After Quasi-Experimental Design

Regression-Discontinuity Quasi-Experimental Design

Counterbalanced Quasi-Experimental Design

Cohort Quasi-Experimental Design

Time Series Quasi-Experimental Design

Factorial Quasi-Experimental Design

Review Questions

5. Correlational Research

Concept of Correlation

Correlational Research Designs

Simple Correlational Design

Simple Prediction Design

Multiple Correlations Design

Partial Correlational Design

Multiple Prediction Design

Convergent Cum Discriminant Analysis Design

Canonical Correlational Analysis Design

Factor Analysis Design

Path Analysis Design

Review Questions

6. Evaluation Research

Evaluation Models

Componential Evaluation Model

Nature of Evaluation Process

Illustration of Componential Model

Inputs Component

Operations Component

Outputs Component

Summary of Componential Evaluation Model

Summative Evaluation Model by Provus, Malcolm

Programme Standard

Summative Evaluation Model by Stake, Robert

Decision Management Evaluation Model by Alkin, Marvin

System Assessment

Programme Planning

Programme Implementation

Programme Improvement

Programme Certification

CIPP Decision Management Oriented Evaluation Model by Stufflebeam, Daniel

Types of Decisions in the CIPP Evaluation Model

Types of Evaluation in the CIPP Model

Context Evaluation

Input Evaluation

Process Evaluation

Product Evaluation

Evaluation Research Designs

Policy-Oriented Evaluation Design

Legitimatory Evaluation Design

Utilitarian Evaluation Design

Accreditation/Certification Evaluation Design

Programme Theory-Based Evaluation Design

Review Questions

7. Action Research

Uses of Action Research

Differentiation of Action Research from Basic and Applied Research

Objectives of Action Research in Education

Categorisation of Action Research

Technical action research

Practical action research

Emancipatory action research

Rationalisation of Emancipatory Action Research

Procedural Steps in Action Research

Problem Identification

Research Methodology

Implementation or Data Collection

Data Analyses and Presentation of Results

Development of an Action Plan

Review Questions

8. Ex Post Facto Research

Characteristics of Ex Post Facto Research

Retrospectivity

Lack of Control

Complete Flexibility

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Fallacy

Procedural Steps in Ex Post Facto Research

Identification of Problem

Review of Literature

Research Design

Matching of Subjects

Incorporation of the Extraneous Variable

Use of Homogeneous Subgroups

Testing of Rival or Inverse Hypotheses

Data Collection

Analyses of Data and Presentation of Results

Merits of Ex Post Facto Research

Limitations of Ex Post Facto Research

Appropriate Classification of Subjects into Dichotomous Groups

Ex Post Facto Research Designs

Correlational Ex Post Facto Research Design

Causal-Comparative Ex Post Facto Research Design

Effect-to-cause causal-comparative ex post facto design

Cause-to-effect causal-comparative ex post facto design

Review Questions

9. Triangulation Research

Uses of Triangulation Research Design

Types of Triangulation

Time triangulation

Space triangulation

Analysis level triangulation

Investigator triangulation

Theoretical triangulation

Methodological triangulation

Multiple triangulation

Example of Triangulation Research

Review Questions

10. Single-Subject Research

Single-Subject Research Designs

A→B→A→B Single-Subject Design

Limitations of A→B→A→B Design

Example of investigation done with A→B→A→B design

Multiple-Baseline Design

Limitation of Multiple-Baseline Design

Interaction Design

Limitations of Interactive Design

Alternating-Treatments Design

Example of alternating-treatments design

Strengths and weaknesses of alternating-treatments design

Changing-Criterion Design

Successful application of changing-criterion design

Stability of baseline data

Length of treatment phases

Magnitude of change in the criterion

Number of treatment phases

Example of Changing-Criterion Design

Data Analysis in Single-Subject Research Designs

Visual Analysis

Statistical Analysis

Interrupted Time Series Statistic

Therapeutic Criterion Study

Review Questions

11. Historical Research

Historical Research as Both Science and Art

Trends in Educational Historical Research

Two Traditional Frameworks of Educational Historical Research

Focus on schooling

Intent for the common good

Equation of growth with progress

Focus on leadership and organisation

Two Strands of Revisionism in Educational Historical Research

Broadened scope of education

Failures and inadequacies of state-schooling

Quantitative Methods in Educational Historical Research

Future Trend of Educational Historical Research

What Educational Historians Must Guide Against in Their Research

Procedure for Execution of Historical Research

Problem Identification

Data Collection

Primary Sources of Historical Data

Documents

Relics

Oral Statements

Numerical Records

Human Participants and Direct Witnesses

Secondary sources of historical data

Review of literature in historical research

Evaluation of historical sources

External Criticism

Internal Criticism

Data Analysis

Writing of Research Report

Review Questions

12. Ethnographic Research

Utility of Ethnographic Research

Characteristics of Ethnographic Research

Naturalism

Holism

Understanding and Interpretation

Multiple Perspectives

Multiple Techniques

Culture

Contextualisation

Emic-Etic Perspectives

Thick Description

Organisational Behaviour

Nonjudgmental Orientation

Member Checking

Social Role of the Investigator

Subjectivity

Hypotheses

Participant Observation

Interview

Field Notes

Sampling

Validity

Reliability

Generalisability

As a Case Study

Role of Theory

Data Analysis

Review Questions

13. Survey Research

Survey Research Designs

Cross-Sectional Survey Research Design

Cross-sectional survey sampling

Census sampling

Probability sampling (Noncensus sampling)

Simple random sampling

Stratified random sampling

Systematic sampling

Multistage sampling

Cluster sampling

Longitudinal Survey Research Design

Factors of Change and Stability

Biological factor of change and stability in longitudinal survey

Environmental factor of change and stability in longitudinal survey

Planned intervention factor of change and stability in

longitudinal survey

Time factor of change and constancy in longitudinal survey

Types of Longitudinal Survey Design

Trend Studies Longitudinal Survey Design

Simultaneous Cross-sectional Longitudinal Survey Design

Time Series Longitudinal Survey Design

Intervention Longitudinal Survey Design

Panel Longitudinal Survey Design

Tracer Longitudinal Survey Design

Validity of Longitudinal Survey Design

Purpose of Survey Research

Data Collection In Survey Research

Instruments for survey data collection

Decisions about question content

Decisions about question wording

Decisions about forms of response to the question

Decisions about the place of the question in the sequence

Techniques for Data Collection in Survey Research

Self-Administered Inquiry Techniques

Mail dissemination and retrieval

Drop-off distribution

Mail-panel distribution and collection

Maximisation of Response Rate in Self-Administered Inquiry

Computer-Assisted Inquiry Techniques

Fax

E-mail

Internet

Personal Interview Technique for Survey Date Collection

In-home interviews

Executive interview

Mall-intercept interview

Guidelines for Successful Interview

Use a skilled and credible interviewer

Suitable introduction

Creation of rapport

Data gathering

Recording

Telephone-Administered Interview Technique for

Collecting Survey Data.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various

Techniques for Gathering Survey Data

Types of Error in Survey Research

Sampling Error

Nonsampling Error

Respondent Error Sources

Nonresponse error

Response error

Measurement and Design Error Sources

Construct development error

Scaling measurement error

Survey instrument design error

Data analysis error

Misinterpretation error

Administrative Error Sources

Data processing error

Interviewer error

Sample design error

Analyses of Survey Data

Data Preparation

Editing

Completeness

Accuracy

Uniformity

Coding

Equating of Data

Transformation of raw scores to standard scores

Equipercentile scaling

Latent trait measurement

Analysis Proper

Univariate analysis

Bivariate analysis

Multivariate analysis

Review Questions

14. Instrumentation Research

Validity of Measuring Instrument

Measurement in Instrumentation Research

Definition of the concept

Development of items or indicators

Gathering of empirical information for each item

Evaluation of the representativeness of the indicators or items

Types of Validity

Content validity

Construction of test-blueprint

Confirmation and enhancement of content validity

Definitivity of the construct

Homogeneity of items

Parallel-panels judgment

Criterion-related validity

Qualities of a Good Criterion

Relevance

Reliability

Freedom from bias and contamination

Predictive validity

Concurrent validity

Decision making and criterion-related validity

Construct validity

Ways of establishing construct validity

Hypothesis-testing evidence of construct validity

Correlation evidence of construct validity

Internal consistency evidence of construct validity

Subtest-total correlation

Contrast group analysis

Item-total correlations

Developmental changes evidence of construct validity

Convergent cum discriminant validation

Factor analysis

Reliability of Measuring Instrument

Establishment of Reliability of Test Scores

Classical True-Score-and-Error-Score Model

Assumptions of classical or conventional reliability theory

Sources of unsystematic variability in a test scores

Multifacet Analysis Model of Reliability

Completely Crossed Multidimensional Analysis of Variance Technique

Conventional Empirical Methods of Establishing Reliability

Test-Retest Reliability

Limitations of test-retest reliability

Equivalent Forms Reliability

Split-Half Reliability

Internal Consistency Reliability

Domain Sampling Model of Reliability

Uses of Reliability of Test Scores

Ascertaining of true variance contribution

Determination of standard error of measurement for all the examinees

Setting of confidence intervals for each of the examinees’ true score

Approximation of each examinee’s true score

Verification of the dependability of actual examinees’ scores

Determination of the possible correlation between two tests

that measure the same domain

Item Analysis

Percentages of response

Credibility of distracter

Item difficulty

Discriminative index

Item-total correlation

Consistency of successive items collections

Frequency distribution for total scores

Latent Trait Theory

Caution in the use of ICC theory in test development

Standardisation of Test

Procedure for administering

Procedure for scoring or establishment of norm in norm-referenced test

Procedure for setting criterion in criterion-referenced test

Writing of a test manual

Test Bias and Test Unfairness

Intrinsic test bias

Extrinsic test bias

Item bias

Review Questions

References

Preface

This book is a product of my 20 years of exciting experience in the execution and teaching of research and statistics and in the supervision of research theses. Often, one sees even postgraduate students who have written simply in the third chapter of their theses that the research design to be used is survey, correlational, ex post facto, experimental, or any of the other research methods without due rationalisation. This shows absolute dissatisfactory specification of how the investigation will be carried out. The research design section of the third chapter that is supposed to adequately deal with detailed explication of the step-by-step procedures on how the investigation will be done is most often haphazardly written in two or three sentences, not even one or two pages. This is horribly awful and completely incredible. The most probable reason is that such students do not know what the research methods or designs that they claim to use truly demand of them. Consequently, they end up producing either inconclusive or very poorly executed research works that add little or nothing to knowledge of problem resolution, and instead, increase ignorance. Yes, this is expected because just as a person who does not know the road to a destination and refuses to inquire from those who know it cannot arrive there, an investigator without the requisite knowledge of the research design for a particular research topic and refuses to learn it can never conclusively execute the work.

A critical examination of this appalling situation tends to reveal that such students only strived at having introductory knowledge of research and actually ended up with just too little of it. An urgent end must necessarily be put to this, and there is no better time for it than now. This book was written for this purpose, to ensure that research works that people do are able to meet the noble global goal of research that is problem resolution.

Appraisal of the array of most readily available well-articulated introductory books on research further made me to reach the conclusion that much more was still left to be done. It then became a special privilege and great challenge for me to humbly produce a text on the all important subject to which most existing books have successfully introduced students. This book, Excellent Research Methods, was written to serve as a satisfactory answer to the ever-fresh and extremely important question on the minds of many students and lecturers: Beyond the introduction, what is research?

Life poses a myriad of problems that can best be solved through research. The various research methods that carefully explain the entire process of arriving at dependable solutions to identified problems in a manner that expands the frontiers of knowledge are thoroughly presented herein to adequately meet the yearnings of students pursuing a first degree, masters, or a PhD programme as well as administrators, lecturers, and practitioners of research in education, the behavioural and other sciences. Most pertinent information on research methods in the best sense of it is comprehensively presented in this book. With a mastery of the information in this text, a student at any level of tertiary institution of learning will definitely be able to identify a researchable problem, choose the most appropriate design, excellently explain it, and meticulously follow it to most successfully accomplish his/her investigation. After exhaustive discussion of each research method in a chapter, review questions are posed for the users to determine how well they have grasped the content and whether there is need for additional careful study of some aspects of the chapter.

I must express my profound gratitude to all the authors of books and articles that were consulted in the course of compiling this book. My sincere appreciation to all my colleagues and academic friends, especially Miss Motuboma Thomas, Prof N. P. Ololube, Dr P. U. Osadebe, and Dr E. E. Kari, for their useful suggestions and support. Thanks to my students, particularly those in masters and PhD programmes, during the years that the book was written. Finally, I am immensely grateful to my mentors, Prof A. I. Joe (Deputy Vice Chancellor Academic), Prof. N. E. S. Lale (the Vice-Chancellor), and Prof A. I. Ajienka (former Vice Chancellor) of University of Port Harcourt; Prof Steve Azaiki, and His Excellency, Chief D. S. P. Alamieyesiegha, PhD, for their wonderful inspiration. My endless appreciation goes to Partridge Publishing, a Penguin Random House Company, for publishing and making this book available worldwide to all those desirous of contributing to knowledge through research. Above all, I thank Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETEFund) for sponsoring this book.

Please, graciously send suggestions for improving the contents of the next edition of this book to me.

KpoloviePJ

Peter James KPOLOVIE

[e-mail]

Chapter 1

Introduction

Research is the scientific search for knowledge that serves as practical solution to a problem. It is the surest process by which man uncovers the ultimate truth for problem-solving. Research is the conscientious scientific quest for knowledge. Knowledge means a belief that has been empirically certified to be the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth for practical application in problem resolution (Kpolovie, 2010).

At each moment, life poses a myriad of problems as a result of man’s propensity for survival, development, and advancement. This is particularly so now that the society is constantly and radically becoming more and more complex. It has therefore become necessary for each person to study and have a mastery of scientific research process that induces a way of thinking that will enable the individual to critically evaluate the information with which he or she is confronted on a regular basis. We are living in the information age and only scientifically verified information through research that can be helpful in our journey towards attainment of glory and wealth. The complexity of modern society demands that we rely completely on scientific evidence. How such evidence is arrived at as well as the way of intelligently evaluating such evidence is taught only in a course on research, which this book exemplifies.

Virtually, all the knowledge that you have gained from the study of the various subjects or courses up till date were arrived at through research. It is clear that you have been regularly bombarded by the results of scientific research and you need experimental tools to verify the research outcomes to know the ones that are conclusive.

Unfortunately, however, the knowledge, skills, and ability to understand and personally engage in research do not and cannot come from all the other numerous courses and books that you have taken or read. It is only the course covered adequately in this book that can equip or provide you with the requisite skills and knowledge of successfully executing research to arrive at workable solutions to any of the millions of problems that face an individual, a group of persons, or mankind.

Concerted effort, unreserved commitment, and total dedication are required of you to study and master the process of executing research as presented in this book. A mastery of the course covered with this text is a potent solution to virtually all the problems that you will encounter. There is no course that is of great importance to your success in life as the one that is treated adequately in this text. This book provides you with the requisite information on how scientific research is conducted. It is necessary for the education of every person. No one can be said to be well educated in any field of human endeavour when he or she has not known how to successfully conduct research in the area or in any other field.

In fact, the entire material that you are required to learn in the social, physical, and educational sciences is virtually based on knowledge acquired from research (the scientific method of gaining knowledge). You will most likely be requested to conduct a study on a very important issue in the future. Conducting of a research is a sine qua non for graduation, be it at first degree, masters, or PhD level, from every globally recognised institution of higher learning. Successful execution of research is a fundamental requirement for the award of a degree in any university. You must therefore be knowledgeable and skilful in the art of conducting research successfully. This book is therefore an invaluable asset, a master-key for problem resolution that must be acquired, meticulously studied, mastered, and correctly applied in an individual’s endeavour towards the actualisation of desired goals in life. Perhaps, a closer examination of the meaning of research will further reveal or clarify the indispensability of this book.

Definition of Research

Research can satisfactorily be defined as the logical, systematic, and objective collection, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and recording of accurate and controlled observations for the development of generalisations, principles, or theories that are ultimately aimed at description, explanation, prediction, and control of natural phenomena to meet specific needs of man.

Eight indispensable characteristics of research are embedded in this definition and they are briefly explicated hereunder:

1. Research is goal oriented, aimed at meeting man’s needs.

2. Research is characterised by objective and controlled observation.

3. Research is statistical.

4. Research is scientific.

5. Research is characterised with theory and verification.

6. Research ultimately aims at correct description, explanation, prediction, and control of future occurrences.

7. Research demands careful recording and accurate reporting.

8. Research can only be done by the self-disciplined, curious, persistent, and objectively minded.

1. Research is goal oriented, aimed at meeting man’s needs

Research is aimed at attainment of a goal, which is often provision of solutions to unsolved problems. Unravelling the truth, adding to knowledge, and pushing back the frontiers of ignorance are the goals of research. This is why a research begins with identification of a researchable problem that is begging for a solution. It is directed towards discovery of systematic cause-and-effect relationships between variables of interest. The ever increasing industrial and technological society poses numerous problems, and man engages in more and more research works to meet his needs. Originality and creativity are needed in the formulation of novel research topics for the resolution of either old or new problems. Relevant literature is reviewed extensively to show the various works that have been done by others to solve the problem and how there is need for the new investigation, approach, strategy, effort, technique, and method to solve the problem in question or fill the existing gap. Occasionally, a previous successful study in resolution of a given problem is even replicated. This means repeating the same study exactly the way it was done but using different sample, subjects, population, settings, and period of time for the same or identical problems.

There is absolutely no problem that appropriate solution cannot be found if only man researches enough on it. Put scientifically, there is an equal and opposite reaction for every action. Perhaps, you are more familiar with the biblical expression that whatsoever a man sows is what he definitely reaps. We live in a world that is governed by law and not chance. There is nothing without a cause. Every effect has specific cause or causes. Every problem must have a cause or causes, which when removed, the problem will be solved. Research is therefore embarked on to discover the causal relationships between variables that are associated with a particular problem. Research is man’s most rational effort at solving an identified problem in order to meet his needs or at least reduce his needs for the truth about the problem. Research is said to be successful when it meets its goal by adding to knowledge. Each successful research provides solution to a problem (which was the goal of that investigation) and serves as a breakthrough in knowledge because it creates new opportunities that expand and multiply as long as the knowledge is applied, utilised, or exploited. Knowledge is generally cumulative. Once it exists, it grows exponentially as it becomes available to more and more persons. Also, there cannot be any new knowledge in isolation; as every piece of knowledge reveals connectivity and interconnectivity with other areas of knowledge in a self-reinforcing and accelerating manner. This success propels and motivates man to identify another problem or set another goal and research on it. As long as man lives on planet Earth and even when he gets to live in other planets, research will continue to be man’s permanent engagement, in order to solve his problems and meet his needs (Kpolovie, 2010).

Every research begins with identification of its goal, which is one of the myriad of problems facing man in a given society. This goal is then carefully structured or worded to form a researchable topic. The goal is further clarified by

(1) operationally defining all the associated variables;

(2) clearly stating the purpose of the study;

(3) specifically mentioning the problem under investigation;

(4) formulating of all possible hypotheses that serve as tentative solutions to the problem, tenability of each of which will eventually be tested;

(5) enumerating and lucidly explaining the utility, usefulness, or significance of the inquiry to the society;

(6) outlining the questions that will definitely be answered at the end of the investigation;

(7) stating the design and procedure to be adopted in the course of the inquiry;

(8) indicating the limitations and delimitations as well as the assumptions of the inquiry.

2. Research is characterised by objective and controlled observation

Research demands accurate, systematic, logical, reliable, valid, objective, and controlled observation. It is from such observation that the relevant data for the investigation are collected, analysed, synthesised, evaluated, and recorded. The empirical evidence of a new piece of knowledge gotten from a research is based solely on the overt and/or covert observable experience that were subjected to appropriate statistical analysis and evaluation in the course of the inquiry.

The kind of observation that the researcher makes and that is referred to here is different from the ordinary day-to-day things or events that we perceive with our eyes and other sense organs. Just think of all the things that you have seen or beheld with your eyes within the past one week. The researcher’s observation that I am talking about is far different from all the eye or body contacts that you have made during that week. While the general and ordinary day-to-day observations that every person does are done willy-nilly, the researcher’s observations are objective, controlled, directed, accurate, systematic, focused, logical, possess the rare qualities of validity and reliability, and are recorded and subjected to statistical analysis for testing of his formulated hypotheses, answering his research questions, and meeting the purpose of his inquiry without bias. The researcher’s observations, whether direct or indirect, structured or unstructured, contrived or natural, unobtrusive or obtrusive, involved or uninvolved, are carefully designed research tools or the techniques that are systematically planned, logically recorded, and critically validated for a predetermined research purpose. This accounts for why variables under investigation in a research are usually defined operationally in concordance with the observational tools employed for data collection in the inquiry.

While direct observation is done with the use of sense organs, particularly the eye, and excludes mechanical devices, indirect observation is executed with the use of mechanical aids like hidden video camera, motion camera, one-way glass, concealed microphones, tape recorder, and so on in a natural setting. Structured observation is applied in experimental setting by controlling each of the variables associated with a particular behaviour in order to determine the effect of that variable on the behaviour. Unstructured observation on the other hand is applied in a nonexperimental setting, a situation that the variables of interest are not held constant (not controlled directly) because the investigation is not aimed at establishing cause-and-effect relationship. Contrived observation is the type that is adopted in laboratory experimentation and seeks to describe action or behaviour that will occur under carefully arranged and strictly controlled conditions. Such behaviour is sometimes simulated due to the complexity of human beings as the subjects of inquiry. Naturalistic observation is applied in the normal and usual social settings like classroom, home, hostel, prison, social group, and so on, to reveal or identify what each of the subjects actually, really, or typically does in accordance with the variables under investigation. An observation is said to be unobtrusive when the subjects being observed do not know that they are under observation. Simply put, the observer is concealed from the subjects of the study in an unobtrusive observation. On the contrary, obtrusive observation is that in which the observer reveals himself to the subjects of the study. That is, a situation in which the sampled persons for the study are aware that their behaviour or actions are being observed and recorded for the purpose of the research in question. An involved observation is that which the observer actively participates with the subjects of the study in exhibiting the behaviour under investigation. For instance, in the study of the feeding habits of obese and nonobese students, the observer necessarily has to be a student and eat with them whenever there is food. It requires more than empathy to do this type of observation. Uninvolved observation is that which does not require the observer to participate in demonstrating or exhibiting the trait under investigation. In this case, he will only watch or observe obtrusively or unobtrusively whenever the obese and nonobese students are eating to carefully record their feeding habits.

3. Research is Statistical

Statistics is the third integral characteristic of research. Statistics can be defined as the science of data collection, organisation, presentation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and interpretation (drawing of valid conclusions and reasonable decisions) that adds or contributes to knowledge. Research requires gathering and analysis of either firsthand/primary data or already existing data for a new purpose. The results of data collected and analysed in a research must add something new to existing knowledge or else the work does not qualify to be described as a research. Data analysis as an integral part or characteristic of research does not attempt to persuade or prove an emotionally held idea or conviction. Rather, it eliminates personal bias as it tests the tenability of each of the hypotheses at a given statistical significance level (Kpolovie, 2011a). Conventionally, the statistical significance level or probability level is 0.05, which means that the probability of obtaining such result by chance, accident, coincidence, or mistake is 5 per cent or less in every 100 replications with other samples from the same population (Kpolovie, 2011b). In the social and natural sciences, merely reorganising or restating what is already known and has been written cannot and will never be taken as a research, no matter how valuable the write up may be. A research must collect and subject data to statistical analyses and expand the frontier of knowledge.

It is with statistical analysis that the parameter of a population is inferred from the sample of any given research. Generalisations, principles, and theories as the goal of science and research are reached through inferences from the statistical analysis of various samples and populations. The best, most apt, or precise way of describing research data is statistical or quantitative. Even data from qualitative research can best be summarised quantitatively or statistically.

All data collected in a research can be subjected to either parametric or nonparametric statistics, descriptive or inferential statistics. Parametric statistics is employed when data collected are at the interval and/or ratio scales of measurement, and which assumes that the variable under investigation is normally or nearly normally distributed in the population covered by the study. This type of statistics easily permits close study of only a small randomly selected sample and the accurate generalisation of characteristics of the sample to the population from which the sample was drawn. Examples of parametric statistics are Pearson’s correlation, t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and regression, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), and factor analysis. Nonparametric statistics deals with data collected at the nominal or/and ordinal scales of measurement to which arithmetic operations of addition, division, subtraction, and multiplication cannot be correctly applied. Nonparametric statistics, occasionally called distribution-free statistics, is not based on the stringent assumptions that the characteristics under inquiry are normally distributed in the population under investigation. Examples include chi-square, median test, sign test, Spearman’s rho, Mann-Whitney U test, and Wilcoxon test.

Descriptive statistics, as the name implies, is used for simply describing the characteristics of a sample or a group of subjects in terms of the variable under investigation. Descriptive statistics does not in itself allow or permit correct generalisation beyond the group or individuals that was observed on a specific behaviour, trait, variable, or construct. Examples are measures of central tendency like mean, mode, median, and measures of variability like range, variance, and standard deviation. Inferential statistics, also known as inductive statistics, is used primarily for appropriately drawing conclusions about the characteristics of a given population from the sample that was randomly taken from the population. It is with the use of inferential statistics that in research, only a true representative sample of a population is meticulously studied and the findings thereof are accurately generalised to cover the entire population; as it is almost impossible (cost and timewise) to observe the whole population. Causal relationships, prediction, and control of natural phenomenon through research are made possible with inferential statistics. Testing of null hypothesis for its tenability or determination of statistical significance in a research can only be done with inferential statistics.

4. Research Is Scientific

Research in the natural and social sciences is scientific as it adopts the careful and controlled scientific method of inquiry or approach to knowledge discovery. The scientific method of acquiring knowledge has five logical steps as follows:

Step 1: Problem identification and hypothesis formulation

This is the beginning stage at which one out of the myriad of problems facing mankind or society is chosen and clearly stated or formulated in researchable form. A well-formulated problem should possess these characteristics:

i. It must appreciably advance knowledge in the chosen field when solved.

ii. It must be of genuine interest to the investigator.

iii. A problem that the investigator has no personal, social, cultural, or religious biases on.

iv. A problem that the scientist or researcher has the necessary skills, abilities, and information (background knowledge) to investigate.

v. It must be sufficiently delimited to permit exhaustive and significant treatment by the scientist.

vi. The person carrying out the inquiry should be able to gather or obtain adequate data on the problem.

vii. A problem that the scientist can devote enough time, money, and effort to completely deal with.

viii. It has to be one that the researcher has access to all the necessary tools, equipment, materials, subjects, and laboratories or right social setting to conduct the inquiry.

ix. A problem that when studied can lead to the development of other related investigations.

x. A problem which when conclusively studied will not produce doubtful results because the instruments used for data collection are of satisfactory validity and reliability.

xi. It should clearly indicate the breadth of applicability of the findings with regards to population, areas, and years of coverage.

xii. It must meet the scope, topical requirements, and significance or value of the institution or journal to which the findings will be submitted.

xiii. It must clearly specify the dependent and independent variables under investigation.

xiv. A problem that is capable of producing findings that will be of great practical value and utility to society, scientists, educators, other professionals and the general public.

xv. It must be that which various testable null hypotheses can be formulated on (Kpolovie, 2011a).

xvi. It should not merely duplicate the work that has been adequately done by others and will not add something new to the already existing knowledge.

xvii. It has to be such that the investigator can gather enough current literature on.

Step 2: Experimental design

The experimental design stage is that in which the entire procedure for successfully carrying out the inquiry in order to arrive at new knowledge is meticulously and logically planned. It is a very crucial and central phase that maps out in unmistakable terms everything that will be done to ensure that all hypotheses formulated in the first step are objectively tested to answer the research questions posed and achieve the purpose of the study. The various approaches, strategies, and methods to be adopted for proffering unquestionable solutions to the identified problem are planned here. A comprehensive action plan on how to execute the investigation covers the following areas:

i. Based on the nature of the problem, historical, descriptive, developmental, causal-comparative, action, quasi-experimental, triangulation, or true experimental design is adopted.

ii. Stating of the population that the study covers and differentiating the population from other groups that are not covered by the inquiry.

iii. Specification of the sample size, and the methods of randomly selecting the sample such that it becomes an adequate true representation of the population.

iv. Construction of the instruments for data collection.

v. Ensuring through empirical evidence that the instruments have high validity and reliability by test-running them with another similar sample and validating them.

vi. Stating of the underlining assumptions that govern interpretation of results.

vii. Specification of data collection procedures.

viii. Outlining and rationalisation of the statistical tools for analyses of data.

ix. Randomised placement of subjects into the various groups in the study to maximise both internal and external validity of the research design.

x. Clarification of how both the dependent and independent variables will be controlled effectively to avoid the influence of extraneous variables on the results of the investigation.

xi. Running of a pilot study to reassure the efficacy and appropriateness of the design to be adopted in the main study.

xii. Stating of the degree of freedom or level of significance at which the tenability of each of the formulated hypotheses will be tested.

xiii. Indication of how results will be evaluated, conclusions drawn, discussed, and reported.

xiv. Simplification of the plan in a way that it can be easily replicated by other interested researchers or scientists.

Step 3: Execution of the experiment and data collection

This stage marks the actual conduct of the experiment as planned in the second step. The entire plan of the inquiry is painstakingly implemented by doing all the fieldwork like interacting with the subjects, administering all the instruments, and performing all the observations in the most controlled form and collecting every relevant data and responses made by the subjects. These are the data and responses that depict the subjects with regard to the dependent and independent variables of the investigation. At this stage, variables are manipulated systematically and in controlled form in order to determine whether the experiment will produce unquestionable and conclusive evidence for the expected results. The objective, systematic, logical, reliable, valid, and controlled observation as an integral characteristic of research is practically demonstrated in the execution step in scientific knowledge acquisition as the entire subjects, experiment, method, scientist, or researcher as well as his assistants and the research tools, laboratory, and so on are carefully, actively, and maximally put into use for the generation of data.

Step 4: Data analysis, hypothesis testing, and results presentation

Data collected by the scientist or researcher are meaningless except when they are appropriately organised, analysed, and interpreted in accordance with each of the hypotheses stated ab initio for the study. This deals with statistical analyses of the data for testing, rejecting, or accepting the tenability of each of the null hypotheses, and clearly presenting and interpreting the findings (results) in line with the hypotheses as well as the research questions and reviewed literature. The data analysis for each hypothesis is conventionally summarised in tabular form for easy perusal, simplicity, and understanding without committing the error of oversimplification. The table is then explained in unambiguous terms to clearly show whether the given null hypothesis is accepted or rejected at the chosen level of significance. Next, each result is discussed lucidly in line with all previous related works that have been reviewed by the investigator to anchor the new finding in its rightful place. The discussion shows the connection of the present finding with already existing knowledge and moves toward formulation of generalisations, principles, or theories for the control of future occurrence. In this way, the implications and contributions of the new finding to the existing body of knowledge is explicitly made.

Step 5: Reporting or communication of the research results

Results of a scientific inquiry must be properly documented and carefully reported in professional journals and periodicals in a systematic form. This is the only way that the new knowledge discovered by a researcher becomes known to the public who utilise it for resolution of the problem solved in the study whenever such occurs in day-to-day existence of the society. The report must be skilfully written to clearly show why and particularly how the research was conducted and what findings were arrived at. In addition to dissemination of knowledge gained in a research, proper reporting and communication of research findings allows for replication of the study in similar situations with other populations.

A well-written research report does not exclude any of the following (Blaxter, Hughes, and Tight, 2009; Rugg and Petre, 2009; Murray, 2009; Jackson, 2006; and Nworgu, 2006):

i. Title: This is the topic of investigation.

ii. Abstract: This briefly, but very richly, summarises the entire study in just about 150 words.

iii. Introduction: The introduction adequately states the problem and purpose or objectives of the study in very clear terms. It also covers the research questions and hypotheses postulated for the inquiry. A summary of related literature reviewed in the work is also covered in the introduction.

iv. Methodology and execution of the study: While methodology covers the well-planned approach adopted for the work such as population, sample, instrumentation, research design, assumptions, and methods of data analyses, execution treats how the methodology was actually, carefully, and systematically conducted or implemented in the course of the experiment or observation for data collection.

v. Data analysis and results presentation: This contains tabular synopsis of data analysed for testing tenability of each of the hypotheses and answering the research questions in unmistakable terms.

vi. Conclusion: The conclusion discusses each of the results presented in line with reviewed literature. It very clearly outlines and vividly explains the implications and practical utility or contributions of the findings in problem resolution.

vii. References: This is where works sited in the study are appropriately referenced.

5. Research is characterised with theory and verification

The development or testing of a theory, generalisation, or principle characterises research. A theory is a general explanation for certain phenomena as it establishes causal relationship between variables that are associated with the phenomena. It is a logically organised set of propositions that defines events, describes their interconnectivity as explanations for their occurrence. Broadly speaking, research is aimed at generating empirical knowledge for the building of a theory, or testing of parts of a theory and sometimes for the application of a theory to resolution of practical everyday problem.

While those who engage in fundamental or basic research are concerned with theory formulation by addressing the question of what (Kpolovie, Iderima, and Ololube, 2014), investigators who are engaged in applied research are concerned with testing of theoretical concepts in actual problem situation by addressing the questions of why and how to improve products or process for greater satisfaction of man. Every research can be categorised loosely as either fundamental/basic (theory formulation and development) or applied (theory verification in practical setting). It is on this note that every research is characterised overtly or covertly with theory.

Other reasons for considering theory as characteristic of research are as follows (Kpolovie, 2010):

i. Postulation and evaluation of theory are the core and absolutely essential challenge for engagement in research.

ii. Theory is arrived at or propounded inductively through research findings.

iii. Deductively, a theory’s acceptability depends on successful tests of related hypothesis via research.

iv. Research works are the only reliable and most valid way of freeing a theory from contradiction.

v. Research leads to meaningful and logical arrangement of the propositions in a theory.

vi. Definitions, assumptions, and propositions of a theory are frequently debated scientifically (i.e., through research) for the continuity of a given profession.

vii. A theory produces many specific hypotheses or questions that beg for research works on them.

viii. Theory allows for the application of the principle of parsimony in which the simplest alternative explanations are proffered and scientifically tested for the how, why, and what of phenomena or events.

ix. Theory posits intervening variables for the explanation of observed behaviour.

x. Good theories organise empirical knowledge and guide research by providing room for rigorous testing of hypotheses.

xi. Theory logically organises propositions for the definition and description of relationships and events for the prediction of future occurrences.

xii. Through research, the internal consistency of a theory is tested by observing whether hypothesised outcomes are upheld and precise predictions of the theory are tenable from empirical evidence.

6. Research ultimately aims at correct description, explanation, prediction, and control of future occurrences

The ultimate goal of virtually all research works, is understanding of the world in which we live through detailed examination of phenomena and provision of accurate description, explanation, prediction, and control.

i. Description

Description refers to the procedures by which events and the relationships among events are explicitly defined and classified into categories. Description is the systematic and accurate portrayal of a phenomenon that clearly identifies the variables that exist, their association or interaction, and the degree or magnitude of their existence. The nomothetic approach and the idiographic approach are used in description of phenomena, events, or behaviour in research.