So! You Want to Study Chemistry What! You Need to Know

By Gaines Bradford Jackson

This storehouse of knowledge was designed and written primarily for the entry level college student who wanted to pursue a career in the Hard science, such as Chemistry.

Most entry level students in the college arena have difficulty in the hard sciences, generally due to a weak mathematics background. This unique book, compiled by an individual who had over thirty years of teaching experience, has accumulated in one single reference source: the essentials of basic arithmetic for the fundamental operations of additions, subtraction, multiplication, and division of whole numbers, decimals, fractions, and mixed numbers with some imbedded mathematical short-cuts; the essentials for the mathematical manipulation of exponentially expressed extremely small and extremely large numbers; the essentials of algebraic expressions and manipulations of various formulas with a full explanation of logarithms; the essentials of basic calculus for the comprehension of non-static systems; and finally a chapter on the basic concepts, constructs, and vocabulary associated with discipline known as Chemistry. As an additional learning mechanism, the chapter on chemistry has about forty problems presented with an associated Solutions Manual imbedded in the appendices of the overall text. Also for the readers benefit, within the appendices is a chronological presentation of the Laws, their formulas, concepts, and vocabulary associated with any basic course in chemistry as a ready reference section in case one needed a quick review on some constructs. In addition, other chapters of the book fully explain the diversity and the many opportunities open to one that has a background in chemistry and the future trends in the overall discipline.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Mar 15, 2012
• ISBN: 9781465394484

Gaines Bradford Jackson

Dr. Gaines B. Jackson has accumulated over twenty years of practical and academic experiences in mathematics and the physical sciences. He received a B. S. in Analytical Chemistry from West Texas State University, after which he worked for Sinclair Oil and Gas Company. In 1972, he received his master’s of science degree in Environmental Science from the University of Texas at Houston. Until 1977, he worked for the Oklahoma Department of Health as a wastewater research chemist. In 1983, he received a Dr. of Public Health in Environmental Health with an extensive publication on the reuse of primary treated municipal wastewater using the land application technique called the “Spray Run-off Method”. He has published in numerous national journals and invented the “Water Utility Converter” and “The Jackson’s Water Wheel”, both very practical slide charts that actually work. He has also authored “Applied Water and Spentwater Chemistry—A Laboratory Manual”, “Applied Nomography Training for the Water Utility Operator”, and coauthored with Hellen Sue Way, “Transitional Science”. He is always available for lectures through the Rose State College Retired Professor’s Speaker’s Bureau in Midwest City, Oklahoma.

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Copyright © 2012 by Gaines Bradford Jackson.

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CONTENTS

Dedication

Acknowledgements

Preface

Chapter 1 Why Study Chemistry

Chapter 2 Essential Arithmetic

Chapter 3 Essential Scientific Notation

Chapter 4 Essential Logarithms

Chapter 5 Essential Algebra

Chapter 6 Essential (basic) Calculus

Chapter 7 Mold Your Life To Tackle a Hard Science such as Chemistry

Chapter 8 Fundamentals of a Basic Course in Chemistry

Chapter 9 Sampling of Branch Chemistry Courses from the Basic Course

Chapter 10 Summary and Projected Conclusions

References Cited

Appendices

Appendix A Chemistry Glossary

Appendix B Necessary Fundamentals of the Discipline called Chemistry

Appendix C Solutions to the problems presented in Chapter Eight

Dedication

This book is dedicated to the many thousands of students and faculty members whom the author has impinged upon throughout his twenty-some-odd years of teaching chemistry, engineering, science, and mathematics at Rose State College in Midwest City, Oklahoma. It is refreshing to know that every now and then, one finds a rare jewel among the sands of people who are knowledgeable individuals in academia who really knows their stuff and deals fairly and honestly with their fellow peers. These individuals are a rare duck, indeed, for all too often, it seems that most instructors in academia are generally overzealous concerning their knowledge in a specific field and are not satisfied with just instructions. Many are looking to advance ahead of their colleagues by playing dirty politics; eventually becoming domineering administrators, rather than teachers of their true calling.

Therefore, to all those students and fellow instructors who actually practiced honesty and integrity (and believe it or not, some do), this book is so dedicated. Plus the fact that once one knows what is expected prior to attacking a hard Science the likelihood of success is enhanced considerably.

Gaines B. Jackson spring 2011.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Author is grateful to everyone who has helped in the shaping of this book by responding to questionnaires, participating in telephone surveys and focus groups, reviewing sections of the original manuscript, and using portions of the original manuscript in their classes. The author wishes to thank all of you, and in particular, the following:

Andrew Slagle—Chemistry professor, Rose State College,

Dawcette Middleton—Chemistry professor, Rose State College,

Billy Wayne Calloway—Chemistry professor, Rose State College,

Victor H. Hall—Chemistry professor, Rose State College,

Richard D. Frost—Mathematics professor, Rose State College,

Linda Tucker—Mathematics professor, Rose State College,

Roger E. Grider—Mathematics professor, Rose State College,

Nancy Graham—Mathematics professor, Rose State College, and

Dr. Terry Britton—President of Rose State College for his continual encouragement, of all faculty members to continually better themselves in his/her disciplines and his creation of a fun place to work.

The professional editing of Ms. Jan Hall cannot be overstated as to the professional services rendered on my original draft. The author wishes to issue a hardy Thank You! to many individuals throughout the years, too numerous to count, who are truly appreciated for aiding the author in the formulation of the ideas incorporated in this book.

The author wishes at this time to thank his immediate family (Suk Ling Jackson, Bradford Chow Jackson, and Harry Chow Jackson) for their patience and the continual belief in the fact that Yes! Daddy can do it. Just give him some peace and quiet and he will succeed—this precious appreciation can not be overstated.

Writing a book of this nature requires contributions of many individuals with expertise beyond that of the author himself, and special thanks go to the Xlibris Corporation and its professional staff that have pushed through the knowledge frontier and formulated a straight-forward publication process that aids millions of free-lance writers to reach their potential and recognize their own achievements in an economical and professional manner. Plus, the opportunity to share the written word with others also can not be overstated.

Despite a mountain of support and the astute, erudite copyediting of the Xlibris Corporation and text editors, to err is as human as the wish to evade responsibility for errors. Still, the responsibility for any oversight or mistakes that may have sneaked in, is solely mine.

Gaines B. Jackson spring 2011.

PREFACE

As pointed out on the Dedication page, this book is designed to serve as necessary supplemental materials that one can constantly refer back to when needed, to be successful in the tackling of almost any chemistry course. The author discovered after thirty-four years of teaching in the Engineering Science Division of Rose State College, Midwest City, Oklahoma that if a student has a good command of fundamental tools necessary to be successful in hard sciences; such as Chemistry, Physics, Engineering, and Environmental Science, the course would not be so hard for them. Therefore with this thought in mind, the author designed, wrote and formatted this book. With this book, one can go back and review, at any time, fundamentals they may be rusty on when they pop up during a formal "hard science" such as chemistry.

Chapter One is designed to provide the reader with a discussion on What is Chemistry and Why in the world one would want to study this discipline (Chemistry, as well as other sciences may open the doors of opportunity and enlighten one in how the real world functions). Chapter Two is written to let the reader know, that to solve many chemistry problems, one must have a good command of the fundamental mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division; of whole numbers, decimals, mixed numbers and fractions. Plus, one must be able to set up ratios and proportions, either direct or indirect and know how to calculate percentages. A good command of words that denote particular mathematical operations will be beneficial and the most familiar are included along with how to convert between the SI system and the English system of measurements. Chapter Three is written specifically to let the reader know that a good command of how to manipulate numbers expressed in scientific notation can make mathematics much easier when dealing with extremely large or small numbers. For example, in many disciplines a basic unit is used to describe a specific amount, for example thirteen units is a bakers dozen, or a regular dozen is twelve units. On the other hand, the chemist uses the mole which represents 6.02 × 10 raised to the plus twenty-third power (6.02 × 10+23) units (specifically the number of particles per mole of substance). This is an extremely large number when written out in decimal form. Additionally, pure water only disassociates to 1 × 10-14 moles/liter which is an extremely small number. Again, to use these very large and very small numbers in mathematical calculations, it becomes necessary to express them in Scientific or exponential notation. Chapter Four is primarily an introduction to logarithms, logarithmic tables, and how to interpolate with the logarithmic tables (many consider this not necessary today with the advent of modern calculators; however, the author felt it was necessary to explain the process if only for reference purposes—as one should be well-informed). A command of logarithms is necessary for any chemist because many Physical Chemistry calculations require a firm understanding of logarithms. To solve many chemical equations that use logarithmic functions, such as equilibrium and reaction rates, limiting reagent situations, reaction kinetics, half reactions, redox equations, and electro-deposition equations (the Nerst equation). Chapter Five is written to let the reader know that in many chemical calculations the unknown may be embedded in the equation some place. One will have to use many algebraic principles to isolate it. Isolation of the unknown is of utmost importance, even if all other parameters are known, except the exponent of a reaction rate. In this case, one will need to know how to find that exponent and this requires algebra and a command of logarithms. Chapter Six is written to let the reader know that he/she does not need to know basic calculus for basic chemistry. However, in reality all chemical reactions are dynamic; that is, one parameter is changing in relation to another simultaneously depending on the reaction kinetics. Calculus is the mathematics used in non-static systems and would be essential to understand as well as control of material balances in the commercial manufacturing of specific chemicals such as plastics (polymeric materials). It is a must in the understanding of Physical Chemistry. Chapter Seven will describe some techniques that one can implement to be successful in the pursuit of a hard science such as chemistry. The techniques require five major steps, namely: comprehension of Blooms Hierarchy of Education, revamping how you read things, revamping how you take notes, understanding your instructor’s mannerisms, and finally revamping your life in such a way that will ensure success. Chapter Eight is written to describe very basically the fundamental concepts that one must grasp at the outset to be successful in the pursuit of a life long career in the study of chemistry. This chapter is not intended to be an actual course in chemistry, but to enumerate and describe the fundamentals for the reader. For example, insight into the nature of chemistry, atoms, molecules, ions, the mole and chemical formulas, solutions and concentration units, the gaseous state and John Dalton’s Ideal gas law, periodic trends of the elements and understanding of the Periodic Table, the chemical bond, and finally, the properties of liquids and solids. This should entice one to study more. Chapter Nine will provide the reader with some insight of the unlimited possibilities with a background in basic chemistry. This chapter will enumerate and describe over twenty different sub-courses that can be derived from the fundamental discipline of chemistry. This list is by no means complete. New discoveries are surely to be found in the future. Chapter Ten will acquaint the reader with what he/she has gained from this small, labor of love book and how it will be beneficial to him/her in the future (assuming he/she has decided to make some hard science or the study of chemistry a lifelong quest of self-fulfillment).

Source materials and websites employed in the creation of this book of information are all listed in the Reference Cited section. Finally three appendices are presented; namely, a chemistry glossary of common terms, a quick ready reference to the many necessary fundamental chemistry laws/concepts/relationships/ and some definitions for a generalized chemistry course, and a Solution Manual for all the problems presented in Chapter Eight of this book.

Gaines B. Jackson spring 2011.

CHAPTER 1

Why Study Chemistry

In this Chapter . . . .

•   What Chemistry is good for

•   Why Do We Need Chemistry?

•   But! Waite a minute, Chemistry can be fun.

•   The Origins of Chemistry

•   How to study and learn Chemistry

•   The Least You Need to Know

•   A Story to wet Your Appetite

•   Summary

Introduction

•   What Chemistry is good for

Chemistry is fundamental to the understanding of why an autumn leaf turns from green to red to finally brown, or why a diamond is hard, or why soap gets us clean. Designing a synthetic fiber, a life-saving drug, or a space capsule also requires a good knowledge of Chemistry. The behavior of atoms, molecules, and ions determines the sort of world we live in; our shapes and sizes, and even how we feel on a given day. Therefore, Chemistry is worth studying; first of all, just because it is such a good antidote for ignorance. Chemistry is the central science that impacts all facets of life. Knowledge of Chemistry is useful toward understanding other sciences from Astronomy to Zoology. All the materials used by engineers and technologists are made by chemical reactions. We all experience chemical reactions continuously, whether it be breathing, baking a cake, driving a vehicle or listening to a battery driven minidisk player. Chemistry is concerned with all aspects of molecules, their physical and chemical properties, their composition and structure, their synthesis and use in the 21st century. Chemistry is the study of the properties of the fundamental building blocks of matter, ranging in size from single hydrogen atoms to complex aggregates of biologically important species. Chemists prepare new compounds and study their composition and structure. This activity, coupled with studies of the way chemical reactions occur, allows theories on chemical bonding and reaction to be formulated.

When most people think of the word chemistry, they think of a sinister old man in a white laboratory coat giggling evilly over a bubbling beaker. This image comes from movies and television. Chemists are routinely portrayed as the creators of terrible monsters, world-destroying super-weapons, and insects that grow to abnormal sizes and terrify the residents of small towns or over-sized vegetables attacking people. Fortunately, in recent years, the media has revised their former image of chemists—who are now sometimes depicted as senile rather than insane. In any case, most people put off taking chemistry until the last possible minute, the same way most of us put off root canal surgery until flames start shooting out of our teeth from the pain that we are experiencing. Don’t worry if you are in the same boat.

Historically, chemistry has been a source of stress since it was first realized that mixing chemical A with chemical B formed a green powder that fended off witches or some other evil spirit. Fortunately, recent discoveries indicate that witches don’t exist and evil spirits are questionable.

•   Why Do We Need Chemistry?

Chemistry is a hard word to define. Some chemistry textbook covers show pictures of bubbling flasks, suggesting that chemistry can be defined as the study of how we can make things behave if we mess with them in the laboratory. Other chemistry books have pictures of huge molecules on the cover, suggesting that chemistry is defined as the study of how we can cram atoms together to make big complicated structures. We have even seen a textbook cover that featured a multicolored squiggle (maybe string theory) is being mixed with theories of chemistry.

It seems that if we put some definitions of chemistry together, we get a reasonable idea of what the subject actually entails. Chemistry can be defined as using our knowledge of how matter is put together and how it interacts with other matter to solve confusing problems (like why leaves of deciduous trees change color). Some of the confusing problems encountered are found in nearly every chemistry textbook. A typical example:

What is the volume of 556 grams of steam at a temperature of 2300°Celsius and a pressure of 35.40 atmospheres?

One will become painfully and quickly aware that these problems are not common everyday experiences. When will you ever need to find the volume of 556 grams of steam under the conditions indicated in the problem? Probably not any time soon. Therefore, the obvious question is this: if you are informed that you that will not need to solve these problems in the real world any time soon, then why do you need to learn chemistry? The reason for learning to solve problems like this is that they really do have applications in the real world. Knowing how to find the volume of 556 grams of steam under extreme conditions may not be something you will be doing in the future, but you can bet that if you do anything scientific in the future, the law that allows you to answer this question will come in handy. Like basic arithmetic, basic chemistry is useful because it gives you the tools to solve real-world problems.

At first glance, chemistry doesn’t seem like it will be a lot of fun. As an example, flip through almost any introductory chemistry textbook, and you’ll find confusing diagrams like Figure 1.1

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Figure 1-1. Predicted shape of orbitals.

These unfriendly looking diagrams give us an idea of what s-p-d—and f-orbitals may look like (s-meaning sharp, p-meaning principle, d-meaning diffused and f-meaning fundamental—this is explained in more detail in Chapter Eight).

How in the world are you supposed to understand what this diagram means? Who came up with this stuff, anyway? Relax. Take a deep breath. The reason you are nervous about taking chemistry is not because chemistry is difficult. The reason you are nervous is that you’re trying to wrap your brain around every aspect of chemistry at once. Think back to the first time you learned to add. Would it not have been terrifying to look in the back of the book to find a diagram explaining how to do long division? Take chemistry one step at a time and you’ll do much better rather than confusing yourself with things we have not discussed yet!

•   But! Waite a minute, Chemistry can be fun.

The best way to make chemistry confusing is to wait until the last minute to learn everything you need to know. By breaking the subject into small, easy-to-digest pieces, chemistry becomes much easier to understand. Each little piece can not be forgotten because the subject matter builds on the fact that you can remember the previously comprehended pieces. Therefore, let us be positive in our thinking and say that Chemistry is fun! With a good grounding in chemistry, you will not only understand how to balance an equation and discuss moles like a pro, but you will also get a better understanding of how the real-world phenomena works—it is not magic, but basic chemistry. For example, take the everyday carbon containerized fish tank filter. Most of us do not give a lot of thought to how the filter works. Instead, we choose to scrub out the foam sponge and change the charcoal whenever the tank starts looking a little scummy. Basically the filter is designed to route the incoming dirty water from the pump through the carbon filter media, removing many dissolved impurities (particularly fish waste) from the water and discharging clean water back into the tank, thus aiding in the longevity of the fish living in the tank. Though you wouldn’t think so by looking at it, the filter uses sophisticated chemistry to keep your fish alive and happy. For example, the first section of the filter generally contains a foam sponge that allows water to pass through undisturbed while picking up solid fish waste. From a chemist’s standpoint, you have filtered the solids from a heterogeneous mixture (the ambient fish tank water as is). The second section of the filter contains activated charcoal (the carbon), which serves to remove dissolved fish wastes. From a chemist’s standpoint, the activated charcoal selectively adsorbs dissolved organic compounds, allowing inorganic materials to pass through undisturbed. (When something is adsorbed, it has been stuck to the outside surface of a material and is considered reversible. On the other hand absorption, which is more familiar, like an ink blotter soaking up ink, is when something has been soaked up into another material and is generally irreversible.) Okay, this example will not wow the guests at your next get-together. However, you will probably find that people are more interested in the science behind everyday objects than they are willing to admit; even if they do claim to dislike chemistry.

•   The Origins of Chemistry

If you are not yet convinced that chemistry is a worthwhile pursuit, you may be wondering who you can blame for its invention. Bad news—you’ll have to travel back in time to punch the inventors in the nose. Chemistry has been around for thousands of years. Though it’s not entirely clear when people started using chemistry, the first people to record their studies were the ancient Greeks. For this, as well as their many philosophical ponderings, students still seem to hate them to this day. Ancient Greek scientists were primarily known for coming up with the idea of the elements, and early models of the atom. Unfortunately, the limitations of their technology kept them from getting an accurate idea of what these elements were and what atoms really looked like. They got us all off track for about two hundred years with everything consisting of earth, water, air, and fire. For a very long time in the Middle Ages, chemistry was a mystical pseudo-science performed by alchemists whose goal was to turn cheap metals such as lead into precious metals such as gold using mysterious chemical processes. This never worked. Typically, the work of the alchemist was mystical, involving spells and potions. Though their science was a little flaky, the alchemists did keep the knowledge of the ancient Greeks alive while adding some touches of their own. Islamic alchemists, in particular, developed many of the laboratory techniques we use today; most notably, the use of distillation to purify liquids.

The first modern chemist was probably Robert Boyle (1627-1691). Though best known for his work with gases, Boyle was the first to disagree openly in public with the Greek idea of four elements in his book, The Skeptical Chemist, published in 1661. Despite his groundbreaking work, Boyle continued to believe that metals weren’t really elements and that it would eventually be possible to convert one metal into another using chemical processes. Hey, even the greats sometimes strike out. The next important guy to come along was John Dalton (1766-1844). Known as the father of modern chemistry, his famous principles of elements and how they function, was somewhat on target despite the limited amount of knowledge at the time. The Five main points of Dalton’s atomic theory are:

1.   The atoms of a given element are different from those of any other element; the atoms of different elements can be distinguished from one another by their respective relative atomic weights.

2.   All atoms of a given element are identical.

3.   Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of other elements to form chemical compounds; a given compound always has the same relative numbers of types of atoms.

4.   Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles, nor destroyed in the chemical process; a chemical reaction simply changes the way atoms are grouped together.

5.   Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.

Despite the uncertainty at the heart of Dalton’s atomic theory, the principles of the theory survived. To be sure, the conviction that atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed into smaller particles when they are combined, separated, or rearranged in chemical reactions is inconsistent with the existence of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission; but such processes are nuclear reactions and not chemical reactions. In addition, the idea that all atoms of a given element are identical in their physical and chemical properties is not precisely true. We now know that different isotopes of an element have slightly varying weights. However, Dalton created a theory of immense power and importance that is still printed in text books today.

Nowadays, chemistry has been converted from a quest to make gold out of lead into a big business with hundreds of thousands of chemists working worldwide. However, the quest to make valuable materials continues to be the driving force for modern chemistry.

One of the largest areas of chemical research today is the development of new pharmaceuticals. Because antibiotic resistance is a growing problem when treating many diseases, new drugs are continually being developed. The treatment of the HIV virus has been revolutionized by the use of protease-inhibiting medications sometimes referred to as medicinal cocktails. Organ transplants are made possible by the use of anti-rejection medications. Modern medicine simply wouldn’t be possible without chemistry. In fact, most of the stuff around your house that is beneficial in some way came from the practice of modern chemistry. The food you eat is colored, flavored, and preserved by various chemical additives. The cleaning supplies you use to keep your house from being closed by the health department are manufactured in industrial lots by large chemical firms. The bug killers you use to keep cockroaches from overrunning your kitchen are made in giant labs. Modern life simply wouldn’t be possible without the use of chemistry.

•   How to study and learn Chemistry

Even after reading this chapter, the big question in your mind may be, Can I really learn chemistry? The answer: With patience and time, anybody can learn chemistry. In the author’s many years of teaching chemistry, he has never found anybody who, with a little bit of hard work and regular study, was not able to understand at least the basics. Of course, there are some things you can do to make this task easier on yourself:

•   Learn the vocabulary! As mentioned earlier, chemistry is full of confusing, specialized terms. It doesn’t matter how well you have memorized the material; if you don’t understand what the words mean, you won’t understand chemistry.

•   Learn processes, not facts! A lot of people attempt to learn chemistry by memorizing the periodic table, the names and formulas of every chemical compound, and all the equations from the chemistry book. Some of these people learn chemistry, some of them do not. Some may even have heart attacks from all of that memorization. Chemistry becomes much easier if you learn how to solve problems, rather than memorizing the answers to every potential problem. In this book, we will be discussing tools that you can use to solve problems, rather than committing the atomic masses of the Lanthanides to memory. You need not memorize formulas. Appendix A has the most common listed; you just need to know what you need when you need it.

•   Slow and steady wins the race! It is certainly hoped you purchased this book in the middle of a chemistry class, rather than waiting until the day before your final exam. Like most subjects, chemistry is much easier to understand if you take it in small, easily digested chunks or doses. Remember, it took over 2,000 years to develop modern chemistry; you probably will not become an expert after a thirty-four-hour study session.

•   Above all use common sense! When you solve problems in chemistry, look at the answers to make sure they are right. For example, if you’ve found that you are 45 meters tall after doing a units conversion, it is fairly certain you have made a mistake (unless you are the Jolly Green Giant).

•   Stop to smell the roses and enjoy the scenery! Though there are some really boring aspects to chemistry, there are also a lot of really neat things to learn. Think of chemistry as being like a long car trip—sometimes you have to endure the traffic in Dallas, Texas before you can enjoy the non-congested small town of Arlington, Texas.

•   The Least You Need to Know

•   Chemistry is important because most of the other sciences use it as a tool for solving problems.

•   A good knowledge of chemistry will allow you to understand how many common things work.

•   Chemistry was developed over a very long period of time, but only in the past two centuries has been made into a real science.

•   With patience and time, anybody can learn chemistry.

When the author first took a chemistry course in high school, he barely passed after a great deal of effort only because he was taking algebra and physics at the same time. He knows how you feel about chemistry and this book will help you get through the process as painlessly as possible (and with much better results than he had the first time through!).

And keep in mind chemists can find rewarding careers in the chemical, pharmaceutical, food, pulp and paper, mining, petroleum, rubber, alcoholic beverage, and textile industries, just to name a few. You might also work in government or university laboratories. Your degree will also lead to management, sales, or quality control positions in which a background in chemistry is necessary. With an education degree and a chemistry degree, you may also consider teaching chemistry at the elementary or high school level; or even in the college arena.

In addition, a chemistry-based education provides excellent qualifications for career choices within science, industry, commerce, and government. A Chemistry graduate is numerate, analytical, practical; has good problem solving skills (elucidation quality), presentation and communication skills. Jobs are to be found in small, medium and multinational chemical companies as well as business, banking, accounting, marketing, advertising, teaching, government, and the overall Information Technology arena.

Whether your goal is to become a surgeon or a research scientist, a teacher or an information specialist, you should examine chemistry as a major. It isn’t for everyone; but those students who do choose chemistry usually find it as interesting as it is challenging, and they always take great pride in the degree they have earned as undergraduates.

A final note, The American Chemical Society is an excellent source of information about career opportunities in chemistry and biochemistry.

•   A Story to wet Your Appetite

Suppose you are king of a small kingdom on the cost of the Mediterranean Sea and your kingdom is famous for making fine linen and woven clothing. Your kingdom needs gold for making coins to trade within your kingdom. Phoenicians, who trade all up and down the costline and have the reputation of being rather shady traders. However, they are very bold in their negotiations and pay for all goods in (supposedly) real gold and other precious metals. They are known to have gold and they want your kingdom’s clothing. Additionally, the science advisor of your kingdom is a big fan and respected colleague of Archimedes of Syracuse (Greek: 287 BC - 212 BC). Now, your kingdom makes a big trade with these crafty Phoenicians and they pay for their goods with gold bricks; one inch wide, an inch deep, and ten inches in length. The delimina now faced by your science advisor is to assess whether the bricks used in the trade are real gold or gold plated lead bricks.

The science advisor knows from Archimedes’s writings that if one was to submerge a brick and measure the volume of displaced water and then weigh the brick and then divide the weight by the volume a specific number could be derived that was characteristic of pure gold only. That is the density of gold (mass/volume) is 19.32 grams/ml. and this number will always be the same if the brick is indeed pure gold. However, if the brick is gold plated lead, the density will come out to be 11.86 grams/ml. (density of lead) or just a litter higher. The story goes on to say that the Phoenicians did indeed try to buy the clothing material with gold plated lead. The negotiator was killed and the Phoenicians promptly left. The king and his little kingdom negotiated with an Italian (who also refined gold and silver), sold their fine linen and got pure gold to make more coins for its citizens—a historical recording from the ancient records of Archimedes, according to the recorder Plutarch.

•   Summary

Yes, chemistry is a challenging subject indeed: However, it can be much eaiser with an appropriate mathematics background. With this thought in mind, proceed to the next chapter and bone up on the essentials of basic artithmetic as a quick referesher course.

CHAPTER 2

Essential Arithmetic

In this Chapter . . . .

•   Measurements/Arithmetic/General Overview of Chemistry and Mathematics)

•   Rules that apply to names of magnitude of number larger than one and less than one.

•   Mathematical Operation of Addition (whole numbers, decimals, fractions, and mixed numbers)

•   Mathematical Operation of Subtraction (whole numbers, decimals, fractions, and mixed numbers)

•   Mathematical Operation of Multiplication (whole numbers, decimals, fractions, and mixed numbers)

•   Mathematical Operation of Division (whole numbers, decimals, fractions, and mixed numbers)

•   Percent concept (Ratios and Proportions are discussed in Chapter Five)

•   Order of Operations

•   Words in word problems that make reference to specific mathematical operations

•   Summary

Although consumers have been reluctant to change, the United States is rapidly going metric because the rest of the world is already metric.

The federal government is replacing inches with centimeters and gallons with liters in its business dealings. The largest U. S. car manufacturers have began building cars with parts in metric units (even the speedometers come with kilometers per hour as well as miles per hour). Many packaged goods are now labeled in grams and liters as well as mass ounces and quarts. Industry leaders may have to switch over to the metric system if they want to survive in the global economy. One major U. S. Corporation had a shipment of appliances rejected by Saudi Arabia because the connecting cords were six feet long instead of the required standard two meters (approximately 6.6 feet). However, a complete switch to the metric system would be costly; entailing endless changes in machines, tools, dials, containers, signs, contracts, and laws (soon it will be inevitable)

•   Measurements/Arithmetic/General Overview of Chemistry and Mathematics

Chemistry is an experimental science. Therefore, it is necessary to work with particular units and measurements accurately in both the English and the SI (or the Metric Systems) although the English System is not used very often. The SI system is based on prefixes that are multiples of ten and than indicated by a power of ten with the base units.

Metric Prefixes commonly used in chemistry

The International System of units gives a standard unit for each type of measurement and the most common are presented below.

SI Units commonly used in chemistry

There are also some important non-SI units that are commonly used in chemistry as shown below. These units are for extremely small wave length measurements and for international commonality in the measurements of the parameters listed.

Some Commonly Used Non-SI Units

Taking Measurements

Measurements must be taken accurately. Always write down one more decimal place than the instrument tells for certain—a 0 if it’s on the line and a 5 if it’s between the lines. Accuracy is how close can you get to the true value and precision is how well you can repeat a measurement and get the same answer with the least amount of variability.

Significant figures

The significant figure rules are to allow people to read data or calculations and know with what precision the data was taken. The significant rules can be summarized in two