The Emergence of Power: Chief Executives as World Leaders

By Bob Navarro

This is the sixth tome in a series of American history books that I have
written based from the perspective of the Chief Executives and the
events surrounding their terms. This book describes the emergence of
the United States as a world power and covers the period from 1901
to 1933. It presents the presidencies of Theodore Roosevelt, William
Howard Taft, Woodrow Wilson, Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge
and Herbert Hoover. The significant events for America that are
included are World War I, the Great Depression, the Dust Bowl and
the building of the Panama Canal.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Jul 12, 2010
• ISBN: 9781462820818

Bob Navarro

Espy and Robert Navarro are est graduates who first took the est training in August 1975. From several hundred hours of participation in various est seminars, they share the power, value and significance of the content and context of these consciousness raising events of the 1970’s. Twenty-six years later, they continue to benefit from this life-altering experience.

Book preview

An Emerging World Power

The Beginning of the Progressive Era

The Rise of Progressivism

Progressivism arose as a response to the decadence of the Gilded Age, and became a movement favoring reform. It started with the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt who advocated a new direction for both economic and social policies that moved away from conservative stances. Thus, he spoke out about the need for laws to regulate tenement housing, to prevent child labor and to provide better working conditions. He also advocated progressive taxation and opposed the monopolistic influence of large corporations. The progressive movement was continued by Presidents William Taft and Woodrow Wilson, and in the 1912 election, Theodore Roosevelt even formed a Progressive Party to run as a third-party candidate1.

The progressive policies included support for organized labor and trade unions—especially with regard to increases in wages, improvement in working conditions and the creation of a universal health care system. The progressive reform endeavored to eliminate corruption in government, improve the environment, deal with health hazards and regulate business practices. Politically, it also strived to provide the public with more control over government such as through the implementation of direct primary systems for the nomination of candidates for public office, and through direct citizen participation in government via initiatives, referendums and recalls.

In terms of the Constitution, four new amendments were adopted as the progressive era evolved. These new amendments authorized an income tax (Sixteenth Amendment), provided for the direct election of senators (Seventeenth Amendment), prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages (Eighteenth Amendment)—which was overturned by another amendment (Twenty-First Amendment)—and extended the right of voting to women (Nineteenth Amendment). In terms of legislative actions, Congress passed new laws that established federal regulation of the meatpacking, drug and railroad industries. Congress also strengthened anti-trust laws, lowered the tariff rates and established federal control over the banking system—especially with the creation of the Federal Reserve System, which acts as a central bank for the United States.

Gunboat Diplomacy

Although gunboat diplomacy2 was first used by President William McKinley during the Spanish-American War in 1898, it was President Theodore Roosevelt who defined its use by the takeover of Panamanian land to build the Panama Canal through it—and control it afterwards. President William Taft occupied Nicaragua at the end of his term to protect American interests there. President Woodrow Wilson also continued with this gunboat policy by his occupation of Mexico, Haiti and the Dominican Republic during his administration.

Dollar Diplomacy

Dollar diplomacy3 became prevalent during the administration of President William Taft. President Taft attempted to establish control over Honduras by buying up its debt to British bankers. And, when a revolt broke out in Nicaragua in 1912, the Taft administration sided with the insurgents and sent troops into the country to seize the customs houses. As soon as the United States consolidated its control over the country, Secretary of State Philander Knox encouraged United States bankers to offer loans to the new regime—primarily to keep foreign money from being invested in Nicaragua.

Another area where dollar diplomacy was used was the Caribbean—which was largely dominated by United States interests. The United States government urged American bankers to invest in Haiti in order to keep out foreign funds. The United States would not permit foreign nations to interfere, and consequently felt obligated to intervene to prevent economic and political instability. The United States persuaded four banks to refinance Haiti’s national debt, thus setting a policy of further economic intervention.

Technical Achievements

Many notable technical achievements were made at the turn of the century. In 1903, the first Pacific cable was laid between San Francisco, California and Manila in the Philippines. The first airplane flight was also made by Orville and Wilbur Wright at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina in 1903. And, the first underwater subway was constructed in New York City in 1903. In 1910, Thomas Edison demonstrated the first motion picture. In 1926, Robert H. Goddard invented liquid-fueled rockets—a precursor of the space age. In 1927, Philo Taylor Farnsworth invented the complete electronic television system. In 1932, Polaroid photography was invented by Edwin Land who created a revolution in instant photography.

However, most of the developments came about as a result of World War I, which furthered the development of new weaponry such as powerful howitzers, advanced mortars and improved machine guns. The large number of head-wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the development of the modern steel helmet, in particular, the Adrian helmet by France, the Brodie helmet by Britain and the United States, and the Stahlhelm helmet by Germany.

The widespread use of chemical warfare also came into use during the conflict. Gases used for warfare that were developed included chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. As a result, effective countermeasures to gas attacks were created such as gas masks. Powerful land-based weapons such as railway guns weighing hundreds of tons apiece were developed, especially by Germany, which developed the Paris Gun that was able to bombard Paris from a distance over 60 miles away with shells weighing 210 pounds. A very powerful howitzer weighing 75 tons was also developed by Germany that could fire 2-ton projectiles at a range of 9 miles.

Fixed-wing aircraft were used militarily for reconnaissance, and later were used for dropping grenades, for ground attacks by mounting weapons on them, and to take aerial photographs. To shoot down these planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Zeppelins, balloons, airships, aircraft carriers and improved submarines were also deployed. Consequently, countermeasures against these weapons—especially against submarines—led to the development of depth charges, hydrophones and anti-submarine weapons.

The British created the tank and introduced mechanized warfare, which Germany then developed into a powerful mechanized force. Light automatic weapons were also introduced, such as the Lewis Gun and the Browning automatic rifle. Flamethrowers, which were first used by Germany, increased the savagery of war by its use as powerful and demoralizing weapons that caused terror on the battlefield. The development of anti-personnel projectiles that produced shrapnel in the form of showers of lethal lead pellets as they exploded in midair also increased the brutality of war. And, snipers firing high-powered rifles that were equipped with telescopic sights added a new element—with countermeasures that were developed such as anti-snipers and directed artillery fire when sniper positions became known.

Endnotes

1. In more recent times, Presidents Franklin Roosevelt, Lyndon Johnson, William Clinton and Barack Obama have continued these progressive policies. Currently, President Barack Obama is pushing a progressive agenda to provide educational assistance for everyone, health coverage for all citizens and financial support for the poor, the sick and the elderly. It is in direct opposition to conservatism, which advocates limited government, the continuing buildup of military strength, tax cuts to stimulate businesses and adherence to traditional values such as that of self-responsibility.

2. Gunboat diplomacy refers to the pursuit of foreign policy with displays of military power—and a direct threat of warfare in case the objectives are not attained.

3. Dollar diplomacy describes the effort to further foreign policy aims through use of economic power by guaranteeing loans to foreign countries.

Theodore Roosevelt

A Hunter And Environmentalist

Background

Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York City, New York on October 27, 1858. His family was wealthy, being involved as a partner in a glass-importing firm. His father was Theodore Roosevelt Sr. and his mother was Mittie Bulloch. Roosevelt was afflicted with severe bronchial asthma from the time that he was three years old, and he developed a form of nervous diarrhea. He was taught at home by his parents, his aunt—Anna Bulloch—and by tutors. He was fascinated by the illustrations of exotic birds and animals in David Livingstone’s book Missionary Travels and Researches in Southern Africa. He also showed a great interest in the subjects of geography, history and biology, and in foreign languages such as Latin, Greek, French and German. However, he never learned to spell well nor figure out mathematical reasoning.

In 1869, Roosevelt spent a whole year in Europe traveling with his parents. He visited England, Scotland, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and France. Upon his return from Europe, Roosevelt continued with his learning by tutors. He still suffered from asthma attacks and stomach upsets, and to combat these illnesses, he became an advocate of the strenuous life by strengthening his constitution through exercise at a gymnasium operated by John Wood. He also participated in footraces, swimming, horseback riding and tree climbing. By 1871, Roosevelt’s health had improved dramatically, allowing him to take a month-long camping trip in the Adirondacks. And, to protect himself from bullies, he took up boxing lessons from an ex-prizefighter, John Long1.

In 1872, Roosevelt embarked on a two-month trip to the Middle East. He traveled to Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon and Syria. He also visited Turkey, Greece and Austria. In the Nile Valley he built a collection of over 200 birds that he shot with a shotgun, which he then stuffed into specimens. Upon his return to the United States, his health began to bother him again. Thus, he was sent on a five-month stay in Dresden, Germany. While living there with the Minkwitz family, he enjoyed the art treasures, theaters and buildings of the city. Nevertheless, his health still was affected by headaches and bouts of asthma, which were only alleviated by a trip to the Swiss Alps.

In 1874, his father decided that Roosevelt should attend College. He was tutored by Arthur Cutler to prepare him to pass the entrance examinations. In 1876, Roosevelt entered Harvard College. He took the required subjects, which were classical literature, Greek, Latin, German, mathematics, physics and chemistry. He also chose to take elementary botany, comparative anatomy2, rhetoric, French, constitutional history and themes (a writing course). In his later studies, Roosevelt took courses in zoology, geology, Italian and political economy3. He graduated magna cum laude in 1880, ranking 21st in a graduating class of 177. In 1880, he married Alice Hathaway Lee who bore him a daughter.

Upon graduation, his doctor advised him to follow a sedentary life because of a heart condition—which Roosevelt ignored by pursuing a strenuous life instead. He also entered the Columbia Law School in 1880, but dropped out in 1881. He then set off to Europe where he climbed the 15,000-foot Matterhorn in Switzerland with only two guides assisting him. Upon returning to the United States, he decided to enter public life by running for New York Assemblyman as a Republican. He was chosen by New York delegates by a vote of 16 to 9 to run over his competitor, William Trimble. In the subsequent election in November 1881, Roosevelt beat his Democratic opponent Dr. W. W. Strew by a 2-to-1 margin .

In 1882, Roosevelt was reelected for another term, again by a 2-to-1 margin. In 1883, he was chosen by the Republican caucus as a candidate for Speaker, but lost to the Democratic candidate. As a legislator he wrote more bills than anyone else in the Assembly and became a major player in state politics4. He opposed measures that he considered to be socialistic and which interfered with the free market. And, he opposed unions and strikes as actions meant to agitate to procure legislation for advantages to workingmen. He also opposed wage increases for policemen, firemen and city workers. Nevertheless, in 1882, he supported the passage of a bill to ban the tenement manufacture of cigars because he considered this activity harmful to workers—and to those who smoked the product5. In addition, he supported bills to regulate working conditions, to require safety measures in factories, and to establish a state labor bureau6.

Roosevelt won reelection to a third term in the Assembly, and launched a campaign for Speaker. He was named Chairman of the Cities Committee, and introduced a series of measures that were designed to weaken the control of New York City by the Tammany Hall group. He also appointed a 5-man investigating committee—which included himself as chairman—to probe corruption in the city government. And, he introduced a bill to prevent overcrowding in the prisons, and to improve conditions of health and hygiene in the prison environment.

Adventure in the Dakota Territory

When his wife Alice died after giving birth to a daughter in 1884, Roosevelt left his daughter in care of relatives and ventured to the Dakota Territory7. He built a ranch, which he named Elk Horn, near Medore, North Dakota where he learned to ride, rope and hunt. He purchased 2,000 head of cattle, and hired Bill Sewall and Will Dow to manage the place. He also became a deputy sheriff, and he wrote another book in 1885 entitled Hunting Trips of a Ranchman.

New York City Life

After a winter blizzard destroyed his herd of cattle and his $85,000 investment in the ranch, he returned to New York City in 18878 where he was sought after by Republicans to run for mayor of the city. Roosevelt accepted the nomination, but was defeated, winding up in third place behind Abram S. Hewitt and Henry George. He wrote two more books, one called Gouverneur Morris in 1886, and the other named Thomas Hart Benton in 1887. He also formed a Boone and Crockett Club of wealthy sportsmen to protect large game animals in the west9. In 1888, Roosevelt started writing The Winning of the West—a work that provided literary and financial success10. For this work, he was also elected as president of the American Historical Association.

United States Civil Service Commission

In 1889, President Benjamin Harrison appointed Roosevelt as one of three members to the United States Civil Service Commission11. Over the next six years he investigated frauds, held hearings, issued reports, made speeches and wrote magazine articles to promote reform. He improved and revised the Civil Service examinations, investigated breaches of the Civil Service law and fought against the spoils system. When Grover Cleveland won the presidency in 1892, he was re-appointed to the same commission in 1893, where he served until 1895. A total of 26,000 jobs were removed from the category of political appointments and were instead placed under the merit system.

New York City Police Commissioner

In 1894, he was approached to run for mayor of New York City, but he declined. The candidate who subsequently won the election, William L. Strong, offered Roosevelt the post of Street Cleaning Commissioner, but he declined the offer. In 1895, Mayor Strong offered Roosevelt the post of President of the New York City Police Commissioners, which he accepted and served in until 1897.

As police commissioner he was instrumental in establishing a new sense of professionalism in the police department by fighting the existing corruption. He centralized executive control to reduce political influence, broadened the use of special squads to combat crime, used civil service standards in police recruitment, extended the employment opportunities for women, opened a new police academy for trainees, standardized police weapons, and brought in new technology such as the Bertillion system of identification12. Many of the concepts and practices that he instituted are still used as guidelines for police administration in the United States.

Assistant Secretary of the Navy

In 1897, President William McKinley appointed Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy where he was instrumental in preparing it for possible conflict with Spain. He called for the construction of a dozen new battleships, and for a canal to be built across Central America to expedite the passage of ships between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. He recommended that an experimental submarine be purchased, and he suggested that the navy consider airplanes as part of its arsenal. He also furthered lobbied for the construction of six additional battleships, six armored cruisers and 75 torpedo boats.

Roosevelt presented a plan developed by the Navy Department to President McKinley for a war strategy against Spain. He advocated that the main battle fleet be based in Key West, Florida, and that a squadron of armed cruisers be dispatched to the Spanish coast. He also wanted the Asiatic Squadron13 to either blockade the Philippines or destroy the Spanish fleet there, and for the army to land an expeditionary force in Cuba.

When the Secretary of the Navy, John D. Long, took time off from his duties and left Roosevelt in charge, Roosevelt took advantage of the opportunity. He issued orders to redeploy ships, to order ammunition and to requisition coal. He also sent messages to members of Congress to enact legislation to authorize the enlistment of men. His most important order went to Commodore Dewey, which was to move the ships of the Asiatic Squadron at Hong Kong to the Philippine Islands. Then, in the event of war, Commodore Dewey was to proceed with offensive operations against the Spanish fleet that was based in the Philippines.

When war was declared by the United States, Roosevelt sent an order to Commodore Dewey to launch an attack on the Spanish flotilla. Within a week, Roosevelt received a dispatch from Commodore Dewey, which he shared with reporters. Roosevelt informed them that the Asiatic Squadron had destroyed the Spanish fleet in the Philippines.

The Rough Riders

Upon the declaration of war against Spain, Roosevelt resigned from his position and became a Lieutenant Colonel. With the help of United States Army Colonel Leonard Wood14, he organized the First United States Volunteer Cavalry Regiment that came to be called the Rough Riders. The training of the volunteers took place at San Antonio, Texas, and then they were transported to Tampa, Florida under the command of General William R. Shafter where they would embark for a landing in Cuba in June 1898. General Shafter decided to land the troops at Daiquiri, and then move from there to attack and capture the city of Santiago where the Spanish fleet was headquartered.

The Rough Riders regiment was under the command of General S. B. M. Young as part of a division commanded by General Joseph Wheeler. After landing, Roosevelt’s troops had their first skirmish against the Spanish soldiers a few days later at Las Guasimas in which 8 Rough Riders were killed and 34 were wounded. When General Young fell ill with fever, Colonel Wood took command of the brigade, and Roosevelt became the commanding officer of the Rough Riders regiment.

In the next encounter with the Spaniards, the Rough Riders attacked the trenches that fronted San Juan Hill. The Rough Riders regiment under Colonel Roosevelt then led the assault at both Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill, forcing the Spanish forces to flee from their trenches. Because they were the frontline of the attack, the Rough Riders sustained the highest casualty rate, including 205 Rough Riders who were killed and almost 1,200 who were wounded. Colonel Roosevelt emerged as one of the heroes of the charge on San Juan and Kettle Hills. This defeat of the Spaniards forced the Spanish fleet to leave the sanctity of Santiago Bay where they were moored, and the Spanish fleet was subsequently destroyed by the American Navy at the Battle of Santiago Bay.

Governor of New York

The Rough Riders and Colonel Roosevelt returned to Camp Wikoff in New York in August 1898, and were mustered out of the service in September 1898. Roosevelt once more immersed himself in New York politics and became the Republican candidate for Governor. He won the election against the Democratic opponent, Judge Augustus Van Wyck, by less than 18,000 votes out of a total of 1,300,000 that were cast, and was inaugurated in January 1899.

Roosevelt embarked upon a path of rooting out corruption that existed under the Republican Party boss, Thomas Collier Platt. Among his achievements as governor were forcing through the Ford Franchise Tax Law against corporations, making the Erie Canal Commission a non-partisan organization, aiding the tenement commission for the betterment of the poor, and breaking up of sweatshops by enforcing the factory law, increasing the number of factory inspectors, and enforcing stringent regulations of working conditions. He also pushed through reform measures such as a new civil service law, legislation that strengthened the state forest fish and game commissions, and environmental actions that prevented the dumping of sawmill waste into the Adirondack and Catskill Rivers. In addition, he supported salary increases for teachers, and signed a bill banning segregation of public schools. And, he supported bills to create an 8-hour-day law for state employees15.

Vice President

President McKinley chose Roosevelt as his running mate for the 1900 election. Roosevelt campaigned energetically, giving hundreds of speeches and covering 21,000 miles. They won over the ticket of William Jennings Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson in a landslide, receiving 292 Electoral College votes to only 155 for the Democrats—with a plurality of over 1,000,000 popular votes

At the end of the summer of 1901, both President McKinley and Vice President Roosevelt embarked on speaking tours. On September 6, 1901, Roosevelt was on Isle La Motte in Lake Champlain near Vermont while President McKinley was in Buffalo, New York. Roosevelt was informed that President McKinley had been shot by an assailant, and was requested to come to Buffalo, New York. On September 10, 1901, President McKinley seemed to be recovering, and Vice President Roosevelt left for Mount Tahawus in the Adirondacks in New York16. On September 14, 1901, President McKinley died from his wounds while Roosevelt was hiking in Mount Marcy. Roosevelt made his way back from Mount Marcy by a series of stagecoaches, and returned to Buffalo, New York by train where the oath of office was administered at the home of Ansley Wilcox on September 14, 1901, by Judge John R. Hazel of the United States District Court17.

Endnotes

1. At this time he found out that he was extremely nearsighted and soon afterwards got his first pair of spectacles—something that opened up a new world for him.

2. The noted American psychologist, philosopher and medical doctor William James was his instructor for comparative anatomy.

3. In 1878, his father died, and left him an inheritance of $125,000.

4. In 1883, he published a book The Naval War of 1812, which became a best seller that was hailed by critics in America and England.

5. The bill passed the Assembly but failed to pass in the Senate. In 1883, a bill was passed by both houses, and then signed into law by Governor Grover Cleveland. This law was subsequently declared unconstitutional by the courts in 1884. A modified bill was again passed, but it was also overturned by the New York State Court of Appeals.

6. Roosevelt introduced other bills that suffered defeat in the Assembly. These included proposals to end public support for institutions run by Protestant and Catholic churches, controlling the liquor traffic by raising license fees, and an attempt to bring back the whipping post for wife and child beaters. He also supported a bill to roll back an attempt to raise the fare on the Manhattan Elevated Railway—something the Governor Grover Cleveland vetoed as a breach of contract.

7. Roosevelt inherited an additional $62,500 from the death of his mother in 1884.

8. In 1885, he built a home in Oyster Bay, New York. And, in 1886, he married his second wife, Edith Kermit Carow, who bore him five children. Roosevelt spent four months in Europe, including England and Italy, as a honeymoon trip with his new wife.

9. In 1891, the club was instrumental in lobbying Congress to pass a law upon which the national forest reserve system is based. In 1894, the club was in the forefront of the Park Protection Act that Congress passed to save the Yellowstone Park from further despoliation.

10. The first two volumes were published in 1889, the next one in 1894 and the fourth one in 1895.

11. Charles Lyman and Hugh S. Thompson were the other two members.

12. The system was developed by the French police officer Alphonse Bertillon, a biometrics researcher who created it based on physical measurements to identify criminals. Before that time, criminals could only be identified based on eyewitness accounts, which were often unreliable.

13. Roosevelt wanted Commodore George Dewey to be appointed as commander of the Asiatic Squadron. Although Commodore John A. Howell was being supported for the post, Roosevelt contacted Senator Redfield Proctor who put in a word for Dewey with President McKinley. Shortly thereafter, Dewey was given command of the Asiatic Squadron by President McKinley.

14. Previously, Roosevelt had asked Secretary of War Alger to appoint Leonard Wood to command the regiment, and that he would then serve under Colonel Wood. Both President McKinley and Secretary of the Navy Long appealed to Roosevelt to stay in Washington, D.C., but eventually agreed to Roosevelt’s request to join the volunteer outfit.

15. He also had time to write The Rough Riders and Oliver Cromwell during his time in office.

16. The departure of Vice President Roosevelt was intended to assure the nation that the crisis was over.

17. Roosevelt had served for six months as Vice President before assuming the presidency, becoming the youngest President to serve at the age of 42.

Completion Of President

McKinley’s Term

Theodore Roosevelt: Implementation of the Big Stick Policy

Events: 1901

Executive Branch

The Secretary of State was John Hay who served from 1901 to 1905.

The Secretary of Treasury was Lyman J. Gage who served from 1901 to 1902, and then was followed by Leslie M. Shaw who served from 1902 to 1905.

The Secretary of War was Elihu Root who served from 1901 to 1904, and then was followed by William Howard Taft who served from 1904 to 1905.

The Attorney General was Philander C. Knox who served from 1901 to 1904, and then was followed by William H. Moody who served from 1904