Tales of Witchcraft and Wonder: The Venomous Maiden and Other Stories of the Supernatural

By Claude Lecouteux and Corinne Lecouteux

• Offers commentary for each story, revealing its historical context, cultural and esoteric associations, and hidden pagan beliefs

• Explores how the tales transformed over the ages and their origins in Classical Antiquity, the Middle East, and India

• Includes stories never-before-translated from their original Latin and many purposely left in obscurity due to scandalous depictions of popes and other notables

The Middle Ages witnessed the blossoming of oral traditions whose echoes can still be found in many legends, fables, and tales today.

In this collection of medieval tales of witchcraft, wonder, and the supernatural, Claude and Corinne Lecouteux explain how many of these stories arose in Classical Antiquity while some made their way into Dark Ages Europe from the Middle East and India. Offering commentary for each tale, the authors place them in historical context and analyze their cultural and esoteric associations. They include stories never- before-translated from their original Latin or demotic versions and show how, unlike the well-known fairy tales made popular by the Brothers Grimm, many stories were purposely left in obscurity because they presented scandalous depictions of popes and other notables. Additionally, for many of the tales, the authors scrupulously peel back the Christian veneer to show how the stories were instrumental in assuring the survival of age-old pagan beliefs across the centuries.

These beliefs are explored through tales of animals with magical powers and the ability to converse with humans, including the tale of the Grateful Lion made famous through Aesop’s fables; stories of individuals with supernatural or otherworldly powers, like the Venomous Maiden who poisons all men who have relations with her; legends of miracles and wondrous things that violate the laws of nature, such as people returning from the dead to help a descendant; and stories of witchcraft, magic, and demonic apparitions, including the pope who was a disguised demon. The authors also explore tales of supernatural spouses and illicit love affairs, wisdom teachings and parables of fools, and heroic legends.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Inner Traditions
• Release date: Sep 28, 2021
• ISBN: 9781644111710

Claude Lecouteux

Claude Lecouteux is a former professor of medieval literature and civilization at the Sorbonne. He is the author of numerous books on medieval and pagan afterlife beliefs and magic, including The Book of Grimoires, Dictionary of Ancient Magic Words and Spells, and The Tradition of Household Spirits. He lives in Paris.

Book preview

To Benoît, Annelise, Perrine, and Mathilde

Praise for Other Works by Claude Lecouteux

Claude Lecouteux is the most versatile and wide-ranging of the scholars of the medieval imagination—any book of his is a treat.

RONALD HUTTON, PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL, ENGLAND, AND AUTHOR OF WITCHES, DRUIDS AND KING ARTHUR

"The High Magic of Talismans and Amulets is the only talisman book you will ever need. In this expansive tome, Lecouteux has unified information never before assembled in one place. This book is a useful guide and a wellspring on the subject, drawing from cultures throughout time and around the globe. Here, given to the readers, are historical examples of famous talismans and amulets, their meanings and origins, and explanations on how to generate them."

MAJA D’AOUST, WITCH OF THE DAWN AND AUTHOR OF FAMILIARS IN WITCHCRAFT

"What are the ancient mysteries of earth and water? Guided by the sure hand of Claude Lecouteux in this erudite and accessible book [Demons and Spirits of the Land], we find keys to the recovery and renewed understanding of indigenous European religious traditions concerning land and water. A valuable book—highly recommended."

ARTHUR VERSLUIS, AUTHOR OF SACRED EARTH AND RELIGION OF LIGHT

"With the Dictionary of Gypsy Mythology, Claude Lecouteux has filled a void long overdue in its need for address. He approaches a mysterious and all too oft misunderstood culture with respect, compassion, and genuine interest. The resulting text is compelling, informative, educational, and practical, as the alphabetical layout lends itself to research as well as reading for pleasure."

VANESSA SINCLAIR, PSY.D., PSYCHOANALYST, ARTIST, AND AUTHOR OF SWITCHING MIRRORS

"Claude Lecouteux’s work on the topic of ancient magic spells stands out as a refreshing reminder and example of what real scholarship should be and can be. Traditional Magic Spells for Protection and Healing is eminently researched and readable: it features a substantial introduction, chapters organized by topic, several appendices, an index, and a full bibliography. It is a must-read not only for the specialists of ancient magic and medicine but also for the general public."

JACQUES E. MERCERON, PROFESSOR EMERITUS OF FRENCH AT INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON

"Both scholarly and accessible in this translation, The Secret History of Vampires is a gem. Lecouteux reveals ancient precursors to the vampire myth that are overlooked by most researchers. These and other theories are backed by a plethora of supporting evidence, including primary sources in the appendices, making this a must-add to any vampire library."

KONSTANTINOS, AUTHOR OF VAMPIRES: THE OCCULT TRUTH

"The Hidden History of Elves and Dwarfs explores the transformations through time of the ‘little people’ of ancient Europe, both as ‘elementals’ personifying subtle powers of the natural world and as ambiguous projections of our own fears and desires. We have always had uneasy relations with these furtive beings who populate a secret world just out of sight, both close to home and beyond our ken, intimate and alien, a ‘hidden folk’ who manifest the quiet mysteries of our daily lives. Professor Lecouteux offers a comprehensive and engaging ‘unnatural history’ of these exotic familiars."

CRAIG R. DAVIS, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE AT SMITH COLLEGE

"A Lapidary of Sacred Stones has to be the most incredible book ever published on sacred and magical stones. The illustrations are magnificent and worth the price of the book alone. A must-have for historians and anyone interested in the sacred and magical properties of stones. This book is really a magical mystery tour!"

JOHN DESALVO, PH.D., AUTHOR OF POWER CRYSTALS AND THE LOST ART OF ENOCHIAN MAGIC

"Once again Claude Lecouteux produces a thoroughly researched, eminently readable, and delightfully entertaining text that blends scholarly ethos with respect for the unknown. Readers with a casual interest in the supernatural will find their knowledge greatly expanded and their curiosity provoked even further. Those already adept in the subject will nonetheless find much to mull over in The Secret History of Poltergeists and Haunted Houses."

THE WITCHES’ ALMANAC

Contents

Cover Image

Title Page

Dedication

Epigraph

Abbreviations of Works Cited

INTRODUCTION. Religion, Romance, and Fable

CHAPTER I. Animal Tales

1. The Bat

2. The Grateful Lion

3. The She-Wolf

4. The Brave Serpent

5. The Field Mouse

6. The Resuscitated Horse

CHAPTER II. Oddities and Wonders

1. The Bell of Justice

2. The Dead Guest

3. Alexander and the King of the Dwarfs

4. The Venomous Maiden

5. King Gontran’s Dream

6. The Water of Youth

7. The Dolphin Knights

8. Albert the Leper

9. The Ship in the Air

10. Hippocrates’s Daughter

11. Mercury and the Woodsman

12. The Skull

13. The Messengers of Death

CHAPTER III. Deviltry, Spells, and Magic

1. The List of Sins on the Cowhide

2. A Visit to Hell

3. The Knight Devoted to the Virgin Mary and the Devil

4. The Diabolical Pope

5. Gerbert and Meridiana

6. Love Spell

7. The Shoemaker and the Malefic Head

8. Virgil the Enchanter

9. The Talking Statue

CHAPTER IV. The Supernatural Spouse

1. Seyfried von Ardemont

2. Liombruno

3. Frederick of Swabia

4. Aeneas, the Swan Knight

5. Helias, the Swan Knight

CHAPTER V. Licit and Illicit Love

1. Hero and Leander

2. Zellandine, or the Sleeping Beauty

3. Crescentia I

4. Crescentia II

5. The Widow

6. Gregory’s Incest

CHAPTER VI. Wisdom, Cunning, and Stupidity

1. The Golden Apple

2. The True Friend

3. The Six Labors of Guy the Wise

4. The Ogre and the Travelers

5. The Thieves and the Treasure

6. Aristotle’s Humiliation

7. The Snow Child

8. The Peasant and the Dwarf

9. The Three Knights

CHAPTER VII. Heroic Legends

1. The Archer and the King

2. Velent the Smith

3. Valentine and Nameless

4. Henry the Lion

The Chap Book Version (variant)

5. Saint Oswald and His Raven

APPENDIX 1. Survival and Transformation of the Narratives

1. The Snow Child

2. Crescentia: The Young Girl in the Chest (Albania)

3. Death and His Messengers

4. Gregorius

5. Henry the Lion

APPENDIX 2. Original Languages of the Tales and Legends

Animal Tales

Oddities and Wonders

Deviltry, Spells, and Magic

The Supernatural Spouse

Licit and Illicit Love

Wisdom, Cunning, and Stupidity

Heroic Legends

APPENDIX 3. Index of Folktale Type

Story Type

APPENDIX 4. Index of Moral Themes

Exemplum Type

APPENDIX 5. Index of Motifs

Footnotes

Endnotes

Bibliography

About the Author

About Inner Traditions • Bear & Company

Books of Related Interest

Copyright & Permissions

Index

Abbreviations of Works Cited

AaTh: The Types of the Folktale by Antti Aarne

BP: Ammerkungen zu den Kinderund Hausmärchen der Brüder Grimm by Johannes Bolte and Georg Polívka, 5 vols.

CPF: Le Conte populaire français by Paul Delarue and MarieLouise Ténèze

EM: Enzyklopädie des Märchens

KHM: Kinderund Hausmärchen by the Brothers Grimm

Motif: Motif-Index of Folk Literature by Stith Thompson

TU: Index Exemplorum by Frederic C. Tubach

INTRODUCTION

RELIGION, ROMANCE, AND FABLE

The Middle Ages—a descriptive phrase that encompasses a span of ten centuries and which was invented by the librarian of the pope in 1469—represent a period that is poorly known to most people. The Middle Ages were allegedly dark—namely, the so-called Dark Ages. But this period also witnessed the blossoming of oral traditions whose echo can be found in many texts that have come down to the present day. Epics and romances, tales and legends, fabliaux and lays—all were performed aloud, and every minstrel and jongleur had a repertory at their disposal not unlike the one that Elias Lönnrot collected during the nineteenth century when he compiled the Finnish Kalevala. These original medieval tales rarely possessed the form in which we might find them today in the versions of Charles Perrault, Madame d’Aulnoye, or the Brothers Grimm. They were most often included in the romances, in which they would constitute an episode, or else were fictionalized. In 1928, Vladimir Propp noted that the romance of chivalry finds its origin in the domain of the tale. Several medievalists have examined this subject and have managed to find fragments of tales scattered almost everywhere, but considerable research remains to be done.¹

The tales are hidden in the collections of exempla,*1² in compilations like the Deeds of the Romans (Gesta Romanorum), the oldest manuscript of which dates from 1342, a collection that Johann G. Graesse did not hesitate to describe as the most ancient collection of tales and which was translated into several languages,³ notably Polish and later Russian. Some of its stories were recast as folklore, and traces of them can be found, for example, in a Caucasian folktale.

The tales are also concealed in historiographies, sermons, farces, fables, and lays. They can be recognized by their structures and by the functions embodied in their protagonists, with everything else being variable. Precisely because they possess an open structure, they are receptive to the interpolations of new elements, and we are often faced with narratives that combine non-native elements.

Legends are constantly adapting to their sociocultural environment; they are rewritten in the style of the times in which they circulate, and, during the Middle Ages, moral and religious considerations played an important role in the transformation process. Legends were most often composed from a primary motif—an event or personal experience—or a notion around which the narrative was crystallized, and one category of legendry is called a récit de croyance, a narrative of folk belief. Finally, these legends all say they are true.⁴

A distinction is made among five types of stories:

Legends of the dead

Demonic legends

Historical legends

Christian legends, including the legends of the saints

Etiological legends

The ancient texts, a great many of which were written in Latin, collected oral narrative traditions, but the tales were also transposed into the courtly and chivalrous world. The décor was changed: the activities of the nobility, the medieval courts and their pomp, formed the environment. Yet the marvelous is omnipresent: fairies, dwarfs, and demons haunt this world, giants and magicians—both male and female—serve as antagonists (the female variety having the ability to change you into a dragon or a doe), but deliverance comes in the nick of time, with a few rare exceptions! What Propp called the magical methods are encountered in the course of every narrative: elixirs, salves, rings, stones of great virtue,⁵ simples, spells—the imagination here seems boundless.

The period of the Middle Ages presents three areas of interest with regard to the study of tales and legends. It first offers us evidence about their antiquity; next, it shows us the dominant themes and motifs on which they were structured; and finally, it provides us with valuable information about the mentalities of the long-distant past, as these stories are riddled with realia borrowed from the civilization in which they are immersed.⁶ A major movement for the rediscovery of this ancient literature took place in the nineteenth century, and many stories were translated or adapted. Just under thirty of the Grimms’s fairy tales derive from the Middle Ages, while that number increases to thirty-three in the work of Ludwig Bechstein.⁷ It was also during the nineteenth century that writers, and even the authors of opera librettos, began incorporating medieval tales and legends into their work, helping to rekindle the public’s interest in them.

One of the other merits of the tales and legends that we have chosen to rescue from obscurity is that they show how the romance writers of the Middle Ages recast the popular narratives from oral tradition and how they mined this lode of stories to construct their own tales. In Frederick of Swabia, one of the forms taken by the classical tale of Cupid and Psyche, we find the incorporation of the myth of bird women, a visit to the dwarfs, and the deliverance of a young woman who has been metamorphosed. In Liombruno we see the fusion of the story of the child promised to the devil with that of the fairy mistress. The tale of the magical return, represented by Henry the Lion, is enriched with that of the "Grateful Lion, and the tale of the woman slandered sees its structure tripled in Crescentia."

During the Middle Ages the border between tales and legends was both fluid and porous. The two genres are composites and constantly shift in terms of their elements. Modern definitional criteria—the tale is characterized by its happy ending, in contrast to the legend; the latter stands outside of time and space, while the former is well anchored in reality, and so forth—are barely applicable here. Now there are exceptions to these rules. Incidentally, we should note that in many cases the list of tale types includes legends. By trying to stick a label on the whole thing, the historians of literature can be misleading.

Equally vague is the border between exempla—religious legends—and folktales. The Incest of Gregorius provides a good example of this. Numerous references in the nomenclature of Antti Aarne’s and Stith Thompson’s motif indexes for folktales line up with those of the Index exemplorum (Index of Exempla) compiled by Frederic Tubach. All of this is to be expected because the Middle Ages did not truly seek to distinguish among all these narrative forms, and, depending on the era, the same story could be called a fable, an exemplum, a story, or a tale. Take a look at the French lays of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries:⁸ the majority of them are tales built on themes that have been clearly noted by the folklorists.

The three major vectors of tales and legends are the religious literature, the romance, and the fable, but traces of them can be found in other literary genres. In the first case, they serve as scaffolding for moralizing or allegorical interpretations; in the second case, they are transposed. The heroes are no longer anonymous; now clothed with chivalric virtues, they live in castles, they go on hunts and participate in tourneys, and so forth. The action is situated in a geographical location, except in those cases when the author is specifically following a folktale. The romances built on the theme of the quest—a quest for identity, for sovereignty, or a bridal quest—are comparable to the initiatory tales exalting the qualities prized by a society: courage, perseverance, generosity, and charity are rewarded. Rescued from the claws of the monster that abducted her, the maiden gives her hand to the hero or gives him the instructions he needs to achieve his quest.

Until 1350 or thereabouts, the majority of vernacular texts were composed in verse, contrary to those in Latin. Versification entailed the use of chevilles*2 and repetitions. Set within a feudal environment, these texts are characterized by long, stereotyped descriptions of feasts, clothing, arms, and battles. They are rife with allusions or reminders of courtly values because the poets and romance writers, whose livelihood was dependent on their benefactors, had to present the latter with heroes in whom they could recognize themselves. Furthermore, during the era of manuscript production, the scribes overlooked and sometimes left out passages, or skipped words. This led to the creation of obscure passages, mysterious phrases, and allusions that are incomprehensible to anyone who lacks access to the several different textual variants that may be extant today. To translate these legends in a literal way, word for word, as we have done elsewhere,⁹ results in a text that only specialists can appreciate. So we have adapted these stories by tidying them up—in other words, by eliminating the redundancies and summarizing the long descriptions and the constant references to God, and to his Mercy and Omnipotence, except when such elements play an important part in the narration.

In some instances the reader will find two versions of the same story presented, separated by one or two centuries but worthy of note because of the alteration of the essential elements, which thereby document the evolution of the narrative based on the talent of the storyteller. In the appendices, more recent accounts (from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries) will show the role that the historical era has played in the written obsession with these stories.

After each story, the section marked with the symbol & provides some comparative sources and related literature concerning the tale or legend.

CHAPTER I

ANIMAL TALES

1. The Bat

Once upon a time, the animals declared war on all the birds that had feathers for flying. There was a large and brutal battle that lasted for a very long time, but the outcome was indecisive. Madame Bat, fearing that the birds were on the losing side, did not want to stay with them for long. With my claws, my muzzle, and my head, I look like an animal, she told herself. Thus, she departed to help her enemies.

However, the eagle had put all his effort into fortifying, rallying, and assisting his troops. He inspired them with so much courage for the battle that they fought proudly and cut down the pride of the animals. They struck their foes so hard and so much that the eagle’s troops emerged victorious. The animals dashed forth in large numbers in vain; they were not able to mount any resistance and the victors then dealt with the bat. They plucked out all her feathers, thrashed her, and gave her a good beating for abandoning them. She remained all black and bare, and the whole court condemned her to no longer fly during the day.

MARIE DE FRANCE, DE VESPERTILIONE, FABLES (TWELFTH CENTURY)¹

The story that inspired Marie de France explains some of the bat’s characteristics. It is a part of the group of etiological legends that responds to the questions raised by the people of a bygone day: Why is the sea salty? Why is the crow black? and so on. It can also be found in the exempla and in sermons, as well as in historiography.

AATH 222 A; TU 501

Albert-Lorca, L’Ordre des Choses; Jacques de Vitry, Sermones Vulgaris, no. 153; Johannes Gobi, Scala Coeli, no. 420; Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum historiale, III.

2. The Grateful Lion

Once upon a time there was a knight who was passionate about hunting. One day, a lion came up to him limping and held out his paw in which a thorn was stuck. The knight got down from his steed and pulled it out, treated the wound with some balm, and healed it.² It so happened that the king was also hunting by chance in this same forest and held it captive for many long years. One day the knight rebelled against this monarch and sought safe haven in the woods, robbing and killing all those who crossed his path. He was eventually captured, and the king handed down the following sentence: he would be cast to the lion, who would not be given any food so as to increase his hunger. Once in the pit, the knight became greatly afraid while awaiting the hour of his death. But the lion looked at him quite closely, and once he recognized him, he displayed great joy and remained near him for seven days without eating him.

When news of this extraordinary behavior made its way to the ears of the monarch, he was amazed. He had the knight brought out of the pit and asked him: Tell me, my friend, how is it that this lion has done you no harm?

The knight told the king about his adventure with the animal, adding: That is why I believe he is not attacking me.

Since the lion has not eaten you, I, too, am going to spare your life. Henceforth, you must strive to change your life.

The knight thanked the king, mended his ways, and ended his days peacefully.

GESTA ROMANORUM, CHAP. 104³

This story shows what happened during the Middle Ages to the legend of Androcles and the lion, which Aesop turned into a fable. It enjoyed huge popularity and provided episodes to many courtly romances; Chrétien de Troyes and his imitators recycled it in The Knight of the Lion. It is also found in the Life of Saint Jerome.

Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, bk. XIV; EM, s.v. Androklus und der Löwe; Pliny the Elder, Natural History, VII, 21, 3–4 (the hero is named Mentor of Syracuse).

3. The She-Wolf

A priest traveling with his servant spent the night in a forest. He had built a fire and was keeping vigil close to the flames when a wolf approached them and said:⁴ Stay calm and do not be scared; you have no need to tremble when there is no cause for fear! The priest then begged him in God’s name to do them no harm and asked him what manner of creature he might be. Our people were once cursed by a Bishop, the beast answered. We are forced, every seven years, to exile two persons, a man and a woman, from their land and to alter their shapes. They then take on the appearance of wolves.⁵ But when the seven years have passed, if they are still alive, they can return to their country and to their original nature, while another couple will replace them under the same conditions. My companion is gravely ill and living her final moments. Come and give her last rites.

Overcoming his fear, the priest followed the wolf to a hollow tree where a she-wolf was lying. She was groaning and moaning like a human being. She greeted the churchman and asked for last rites, but he hesitated because he was looking at an animal. Then, using his paw as if it were a hand, he pulled back the hide from the wolf’s head and unrolled it down to her navel, revealing the body of an old woman.*3 The priest finished by giving her the communion for which she asked, and the wolf skin immediately covered her again.

In the morning, the wolf led the priest and his servant out of the forest, showed them the safest road, thanked them, and disappeared.

GERALD OF WALES, TOPOGRAPHIA HIBERNICA, II, 1⁶

Behind this legend is hidden a belief in werewolves in Ireland that has been clearly confirmed since the twelfth century. Another account offers some information that completes this text: One day the Irish began howling like wolves against Saint Patrick, who was preaching the Christian religion to them. So that their descendants would have a visible sign of their ancestors’ lack of faith, the saint asked God to make it so that some of them would be transformed into wolves for seven years and live in the forests like the animals whose appearance they had assumed. ⁷

  EM, s.v. Wolfsmenschen and Giraldus Cambrensis; Lecouteux, Elle courait le garou; Witches, Werewolves, and Fairies.

4. The Brave Serpent

During the reign of the emperor Fulgentius there was a knight named Zedechias⁸ who lived in his empire. He had married a very beautiful but impossibly stupid woman.⁹ A serpent lived in one room of their house. The knight participated so often in tournaments and jousting that he became quite impoverished by it. He wept bitter tears and, at the height of his despair, vainly thrashed about not knowing what to do. The serpent took note of his sorrow and, like Balaam’s ass¹⁰ from days of yore, started to speak:¹¹ Why do you lament? Follow my counsel and you shall not regret it. Give me some sweet milk every day and I will make you rich.*4 Zedechias was overjoyed and promised to grant him his wish every day. In a short time, he had made a fortune, had beautiful children, and was living in luxury.

One day his wife said to him: "My lord, I am sure that the serpent is hiding great wealth in the room where he dwells.¹² I advise you to kill him so we can steal it from him." Following his wife’s advice, at the same time Zedechias brought the snake the saucer of milk, he took a hammer to kill it. When he saw the milk, the snake stuck his head from his hole to drink it as usual. The knight raised his hammer to crush him, but the serpent spotted it in extremis, pulled back his head, and the hammer only hit the saucer.

Shortly after this attempt, Zedechias lost his children and all his goods. His wife then said to him: Oh, what bad advice I gave you! Go to the snake’s hole and make your mea culpa in every possible way so that, maybe, he will forgive you.

The knight obeyed his wife and went weeping to beg the serpent for his forgiveness so he could regain his former wealth. But the beast responded: I now can clearly see that you are a fool and you will always be one. It is impossible for me to forget that you tried to kill me, just as it is impossible for you to forget that I killed your children and took possession of all your riches. Thus, there can be no peace between us.

Deeply troubled, Zedechias replied: I promise you that I shall never undertake anything at all against you, if only you will forgive me.

My dear friend, said the serpent, be satisfied with my words, for I will never forget your hammer blow and treachery. Get away before something worse happens to you!

Greatly stricken, the knight left and told his wife: What a misfortune it is that I followed your advice! And from that time on they lived in perpetual poverty.

GESTA ROMANORUM, CHAP. 141¹³

This tale features a household spirit in an ophidian shape, a common guise of this creature in the folk beliefs. The well-being of the house always depends on the way this spirit is treated. As a general rule, the owner of the premises concludes a tacit pact with the serpent: he will enjoy a life of wealth and ease in return for food. But if the contract is broken, the spirit will take its revenge or leave, and misfortune will move in.

AATH 285 A

Lecouteux, The Tradition of Household Spirits.

5. The Field Mouse

The field mouse, which looks quite a bit like a house mouse, was formerly so full of pride that it refused to take a wife from his kindred or fellow field mice. I will never marry, he said, unless I find someone to my liking! He started by addressing the sun, because it was the highest, most powerful, and hottest of all things. Go farther, the sun answered him, to the cloud that covers me in shade. I can no longer show myself when he hides me.

You are so powerful, the mouse declared to the cloud, that I aspire to your daughter’s hand.

Go farther, the other responded, and you will find one more powerful than me: the wind that scatters me with its breath.

I will go find it; keep your daughter.

The field mouse thus visited the wind and said to it: The cloud sent me to you because you are, according to him, the most powerful of all and your might is boundless. You drive away all creatures and destroy them by blowing. I want to marry your daughter because nothing can resist you.

You are mistaken, replied the wind. You shall not find a wife here because there is something more powerful than I, someone who makes a fool of me. It is a large stone tower that remains solid and whole. I have never been able to demolish it or weaken it; it repels me so strongly that I no longer dare attack it.

I don’t want your daughter, exclaimed the field mouse, a woman of low estate! I shall wed one that brings me great honor. I will therefore go see the tower.

He went and asked for the hand of his daughter, and the tower looked at him while answering: You are fooling yourself and have not paid enough attention. The one that sent you here must be making fun of you, methinks. You will find someone even more powerful than I, someone with whom I could never compete.

Who is it then? Who is stronger than you in the world?

The mouse. It makes its nest and lives in my walls; there is no mortar, hard as it might be, that she cannot pierce. She digs beneath me and through me; nothing can stop her!

What? That is sad news! The mouse is kin to me, and I have gone to all this trouble for nothing. I thought I was raising myself up, but I must go back down.

Such is your fate. Go back home and make sure to remember that you must not despise your own nature. The one who wishes to climb very high above his own rank has only the further to fall. No one should scorn their own rank, as long as it is not dishonorable. You can travel a great distance, but you will never find a wife who is better suited for you than the mouse.

MARIE DE FRANCE, DE MURE UXOREM PETENTE, FABLES (TWELFTH CENTURY)¹⁴

Transmitted by Johannis de Capua (Directorium Vitae Humanae, V, 8), the Pañcatantra (III, 13), and the Liber Kalilae et Dimnae (IV, 109), this folktale of Eastern origin can be seen, most nostably, in La Fontaine’s The Mouse Changed into a Girl (Fables, IX, 7) and, later, Bechstein’s Neues Deutsches Märchenbuch.¹⁵

6. The Resuscitated Horse

Once upon a time there was a valiant knight who was hospitable and generous. At the beginning of the fast of Quadragesima, which is commonly called Lent, he found that he was low on food supplies; it so happens that on this day he customarily held a feast.¹⁶ He ordered one of his servants to discreetly slaughter a good horse that he owned and have it cooked. The servant obeyed his master’s orders.

The next day, the squire went out to groom and currycomb the horse. Fearing that people would find out it had disappeared, the knight tried to prevent him from entering the stable. Using all manner of pretexts, he kept him outside, but finally the squire heard the horse whinny. He entered and brought out the animal totally alive.

GERVASE OF TILBURY OTIA IMPERIALIA, III, 100

Beneath its Christian overlay, and even though Gervase of Tilbury chose not to reproduce the important details of the traditional narrative, we can recognize in this folktale one of the final vestiges of a shamanic belief, which holds that a slain animal can be revived by reforming its skeleton. One of the oldest examples of this belief can be found in the Eddas.

While he was traveling in his cart drawn by goats,