In the Footsteps of Generals: A Travel Guide to the Battlefields of France

By JD Mosteau

A TRAVEL GUIDE TO THE BATTLEFIELDS OF FRANCE

There are plenty of history books and plenty of travel guides, but here we combine these to lead you to famous French battlefields throughout history: Roman, medieval, and modern times.
We don't just tell you history, we also tell you what you can find at these sites today. We tell you where the battlefield is, but we also tell you where the best local art galleries, museums and other attractions can be found. We let you know what you really should see and what to skip. We share our opinions, and we hope our ranking system helps you best manage your touring time and energy.

Use this guide to experience history in a new and informative way.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Tellwell Talent
• Release date: Feb 3, 2021
• ISBN: 9780228844969

JD Mosteau

Johnny Mosteau is a lawyer, travel writer and lover of military history, world culture, art, wild spaces, and urban places. He resides in Canada, France and Mexico and travels frequently. He is fascinated by all things foreign, and the quirks of life and history.

Book preview

In the Footsteps of

Generals

A Travel Guide to the Battlefields of France

JD MOSTEAU

In the Footsteps of Generals

Copyright © 2021 by Footsteps of Generals Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the author, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law.

Tellwell Talent

www.tellwell.ca

ISBN

978-0-2288-4497-6 (Paperback)

978-0-2288-4496-9 (eBook)

Dedication

To Patricia, who offered 70 % patience,

90% support, 10% inspiration, 60 % tolerance and who at 230% is clearly a great multi-tasker.

Contents

Alesia 52 BCE - Bourgogne

Châlons

Autun

Strasbourg

Marseille

Toulouse

Béziers—1209

Calais

Poitiers

Azincourt

D’Arc Path

Nancy

La Rochelle

Arras

Brest

Toulon

Amiens

Valmy

Napoleon’s Six Days’ Campaign and Château-Thierry

Roncevaux Pass

Metz

Sedan

The Marne

The Artois

The Vosges

The Aisne - Chemin Des Dames

Verdun

The Somme

Cambrai

Belleau Wood

Dunkirk

Saumur

Normandy Beaches

Normandy After D-Day—Beyond the Beaches

The End of Battles in France

IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF GENERALS

A TRAVEL GUIDE TO THE BATTLEFIELDS OF FRANCE

There are plenty of travel guides, and there are plenty of guides to big battlefields like the D-Day beaches and the Great War sites. But here you will find guides to famous battlefields throughout history: we cover D-Day and the Great War too, but in this book we also provide information about sites from Roman, Medieval and Modern Times.

What makes this book different is that we don’t just tell you history, we also tell you what you can find at these sites today—not just war museums and memorials, but other attractions, galleries and activities. We make suggestions about where to eat and sleep, what you really should see and what to skip. We share our opinions, and we hope our ranking system helps you best manage your touring time and energy.

ABOUT THE SITES WE REVIEW

Our history is full of violence and conflict—so how do we pick which battle sites to tell you about? We have three main criteria: the battle must be historically significant; we need to have at least a general understanding of where it took place; and there must be something to see at that location. There are a lot of former battle sites that are now just farmer’s fields or parking lots. While we might give you the option to go to these areas, we are not going to ask you to drive for two or three hours just to look at a plowed field or a herd of cows.

GETTING AROUND AND FINDING YOUR WAY

Virtually all the sites are accessible only by motor vehicle, and we assume that you are going to travel in a private vehicle. There are, of course, companies that will take you on tours, and you can find them on the internet. The other thing we assume is that you have access to GPS. We usually give map references for sites and attractions. If you enter these into your navigation system (or the name of where we are sending you) you should be able to find your destination without any difficulty.

Similarly, we do not list any details about museum or attraction operating times or fees. Instead, wherever possible we have provided links to external websites containing this information.

BUT WHAT IF MY COMPANIONS ARE NOT INTERESTED IN BATTLEFIELD SITES?

As much as we love visiting these sites, we realize that not everyone shares our passion and that is why we created this website. Yes, we tell you where the battlefield is, but we also tell you where the best local art galleries, museums and other attractions can be found. Look, if your partner is willing to come along on your visit to the tank museum, you should be willing to spend some time looking at abstract art or strolling through a market. There is also the reality that, sometimes, visiting only war-related sites can become tedious or overwhelming (the same goes for visiting church after church, no matter how beautiful they might be!). So be flexible and change it up. You might just be pleasantly surprised.

RANKING SYSTEM EXPLAINED

1.Slow down as you drive past.

2.Stop if you need to stretch your legs.

3.Park the vehicle and take a look.

4.Visit if bored.

5.Kind of interesting, visit if you have time.

6.If going by, stop and look around.

7.Worth a detour; go take some pictures.

8.Interesting and informative.

9.Worth the stop; probably should visit.

10.Not to be missed.

Note: Out of respect, we do not rank cemeteries.

A WORD ABOUT WEBSITES

The endnotes provide helpful website links. We try to ensure that these links are accurate, but we do not maintain these websites, so if you get a bad link, please do not blame us.

Alesia 52 BCE - Bourgogne

Despite being dubbed barbaric, pre-Roman Gaul was a land of considerable wealth. Western Europe was rich in gold mines, and the locals were fond of displaying this wealth in body jewelry. They were minting gold coins from the fourth century BCE onwards. By comparison, at the time of Caesar’s invasion of Gaul, Romans continued to use only silver and bronze coins. Pre-Roman Gauls were also experts in blacksmithing and forged high-quality ore and goods, including plowshares, farm tools and, of course, swords. They had a calendar more advanced than that used by Rome and, while they did not leave any written record, they maintained a class of professional intellectuals—known as Druids—who were guardians of an oral tradition of literature and history, as well as medical, scientific and religious knowledge. They were also the guardians of a large body of sophisticated laws.

Gallic society was structured around the clan and the duty of clan members. Clans tended to be based in towns, which were trading centres often closely connected to mining operations. A Gallic farmhouse was usually a large, rectangular, two-story building, the interior of which sometimes consisted of a single large common room and sometimes many smaller chambers. Gallic towns were often connected to each other by wooden roads, many of which were eventually paved over in the Roman style.

Militarily, it was often difficult to tell the difference between a Gallic and Roman soldier. Both employed large shields, and both wore formed helmets. In many ways, Gallic armaments were superior to those of the Romans. In fact, following the Gallic Wars, Roman helmet design became more like those of the Gauls, incorporating characteristic Gallic cheek guards. Gallic shields were man-sized and highly decorated. Again, Romans subsequently adopted the Gallic-style shield as their standard issue. Gauls were also proficient in the use of light spears and javelins. Although they made little use of archers, they did make effective use of cavalry. As they tended to apply military tactics of movement, they lacked siege machines.

As victors tend to write history, it was expedient for Rome to play up the barbaric aspects of Gallic society. In battle, this was notable in the seeming lack of tactical discipline of the Gallic horde. Similarly, because the Gauls had a habit of collecting the heads of defeated enemies, the Romans pointed to this as an indicator of savagery.

If we appreciate the wealth of Gaul, Julius Caesar’s interest in these wildlands makes more sense. Julius Caesar was an ambitious senator in his 40s, but by 61 BCE was deeply in debt. He needed cash to ward off his creditors and a military adventure to boost his career. In Gaul he saw an opportunity to meet both these demands.

In 58 BCE, Rome was presented with the pretense it needed to invade Gaul. The leader of the Gallic Aedui clan, Diviciacus, had been deposed in a coup and fled to Rome to seek assistance in reclaiming his position. Diviciacus was seemingly well mannered and made the rounds of the best houses in Rome but was unable to garner support for a military adventure until he latched onto Julius Caesar. Seeing the opportunity, Caesar led a campaign to convince Roman leadership that the Gauls posed a serious threat to Rome itself. In particular, he singled out the Helvetii as a serious threat. The basis for this was that the Helvetii were engaged in a mass migration into modern-day France, which was caused by a combination of population growth and pressure from Germanic and other peoples expanding into their territory from the east. Caesar persuaded the Senate to appoint him Protector of the Gauls. This turned out to be an ironic title, as over the next several years it is estimated that Roman forces slaughtered upwards of one million Gauls and enslaved one million more.

The legions’ invasion of Gaul was not easy. While Rome had the advantage of a disciplined professional army, the Gauls had the advantage in numbers and an ability to unite, at least for short periods of time, in a common cause. The Romans were also beyond their supply lines and often short of food and forage. The Roman conquest of Gaul began in earnest in 58 BCE. Major engagements occurred throughout modern France, with a general theme of Roman success (in chronological order: the Battles of Arar, Bibracte, Vesontio, Aisne, Sambre, Atuatuci, and Morbihan Gulf). Throughout 55-53 BCE, the legions continued to assert Roman dominance over Gaul, stamping down any resistance by the Gauls and warding off Germanic incursions. By 53 BCE, Caesar had ten full legions in Gaul—a force of forty to fifty thousand men.

Satisfied with his campaigning so far, Caesar returned to Italy in the summer of 53 BCE after leaving garrisons scattered throughout occupied Gaul. But he was soon recalled to Gaul due to a new emergency: the Great Gallic Revolt. A charismatic new leader had emerged. While his real name is unknown, the warrior known as Vercingetorix, a title meaning over-warrior, emerged as the leader of a coalition of tribes, of which the Helvetii were the most predominant. During a convenient uprising in the town of Cenabum (Orléans), Vercingetorix’s forces attacked and destroyed the local Roman winter garrisons. Caesar responded by force-marching his army through deep snow in winter weather and falling upon the Gallic forces.

Most of the major battles between Romans and Gauls for the rest of the Gallic Wars were a series of sieges at Gorgobina (possibly Saint-Parize-le-Châtel or La Guerche [Niève]), Vellaunodunum (possibly at Montargis or Château-Landon), Cenabum (Orléans), Noviiodunum (probably Neung sur Beuvron), Avaricum and Gerovia.

While the Gauls suffered defeats, throughout 52 BCE Vercingetorix was able to maintain his authority and implement a scorched-earth policy: the Gauls would burn towns and villages to deny the Roman army food and other supplies and would also stage harassing raids and attacks on Roman foraging parties. The Gauls destroyed at least twenty towns that lay in the Roman army’s path. The one town the Gauls decided not to burn was Avaricum (near present-day Bourges), which the inhabitants tried to defend against the Roman forces. This was a mistake: the Romans slaughtered them all. The massacre at Avaricum persuaded the Gauls that Vercingetorix’s strategy of avoiding direct conflict with the Romans and denying them the supplies they needed was a good idea.

The one Gallic victory in this campaign was at the Battle of Gerovia in May 52 BCE. The site of this battle is at La Roche-Blanche near Clermont-Ferrand. Gerovia was in a strong defensive position at the top of a steep hill. Direct assault was not possible, so Caesar began a siege. He split his forces, stationing one camp on a small hill while the rest of his forces remained on the plains. The two camps were joined by a three-metre-wide trench. Caesar could not maintain this entrenchment as ten thousand infantry of the Aedui clan (a former Roman ally) advanced to attack his position. While this threat was headed off, a possible revolt by the Aedui inspired Caesar to abandon the siege and move north to join all his legions together. Caesar, as you may know, was not one to admit defeat, and he organized an attack on Gerovia. He got his chance on a day when most of the Gallic defenders were away from the main camp building defensive fortifications on a different part of the hill. This face-saving attack went well for the legions, but—contrary to orders—several legions went past the captured camp and attempted an assault on the town walls. This ended badly for the legions and forced a chaotic withdrawal. The next day, Caesar drew up the legions for battle, but Vercingetorix refused to take the bait. With that, the legions departed and Gerovia was saved.

Vercingetorix’s next move was to march his army, which included about fifteen thousand men on horseback, to the fortified town of Alesia (situated on Mont Auxois above the modern village of Alise-Sainte-Reine). Caesar followed on the heels of Vercingetorix with six legions and many German cavalry. The settlement of Alesia occupied high ground, and Caesar decided to starve out the defenders rather than engage in open battle. To accomplish this, the Romans turned to their other field of expertise: military engineering.

The legions dug two trenches, one 6 metres deep and another 4 metres deep, which they filled with water diverted from a nearby stream. They also built a rampart approximately sixteen kilometres long, topped by a stockade wall with watchtowers and gates. This wall was also defended by spikes to prevent opponents from scaling it, and dead drops and other traps were placed in the ditches. However, before the siege fortifications were complete, Vercingetorix sent out riders to his allies to gather a relief force. While Vercingetorix did not seem to know it, a force reportedly as large as 320,000 warriors was assembled and began the march to Alesia. Caesar learned that this army was headed his way and came to an ingenious solution: he had the legions build a second circuit wall around the first one, consisting of twenty kilometres of ditches, walls, ramparts, and traps. By this method, the legions were protected from attacks from Alesia and from the relief force.

As the siege of Alesia progressed, the defending force began to run out of food. The warriors in the town decided to send out all non-combatants, including the elderly, women and children. They were forced into the area between Alesia and the Roman line. Caesar denied their pleas to pass through the lines and did not give them food. Most of them probably died from starvation.

The relief force arrived and began to attack the Romans’ outer defensive positions. At the same time, Vercingetorix led raids out of Alesia to attack the Roman inner positions. The outnumbered Romans in their well-made fortifications withstood these assaults from both sides. After five days of fighting, Vercingetorix realized the Romans could not be defeated, and as the defenders of Alesia were out of food, he decided, in consultation with his warriors, to surrender. The Roman writer Plutarch claims that Vercingetorix put on his most colourful armour, had his horse groomed, and rode out of the city to face Caesar. He reportedly rode a circle around the Roman general before dismounting, removing his armour and surrendering himself.

Vercingetorix was taken to Rome and imprisoned for five years. He was eventually put on display during a twenty-day celebration of Caesar’s victories and then garroted to death. During the same period, Caesar further augmented his power and eventually became dictator of Rome.

After Alesia, the Gauls were unable to mount any further significant defence. Throughout 51 BCE, the legions consolidated control over the province, including siege engagements at Limonum (Poitiers) and Uxellodunum (near Vayrac above the river Dordogne). After defeating the defenders of Uxellodunum, Caesar decided to set an example—rather than enslaving or killing them, he had their hands cut off and set them free.

ALESIA TODAY

It is relatively easy to combine a visit to the Verdun Battlefields with a trip to Alesia, a 3.5-hour drive away. The drive takes you past the sites of the Battle of Valmy (1792), Champs Catalauniques (451) and the Battle of Laubressel (3 March 1814) via the A4 and A26.

Le MuseoParc Alesia: This is what you are here for. The museum is excellent, with well-thought-out exhibits that include an outdoor reconstruction of the fortifications. The film is cheesy but short. There are events for children during the summer but fewer crowds the rest of the year. Allow two to three hours to visit. The restaurant is pretty good. Included with your ticket is a visit to the hilltop ruins three kilometres away. And do not forget the obligatory photo of the statue of Vercingetorix.¹

AROUND ALESIA:

Parc de L’Auxois: Aquapark and zoo. Bring your own food.²

Château de Busy-Rabutin is a stunning château with attractive grounds.³ Rank 7

Château de Chateauneuf is a large hilltop castle on the outskirts of the beautiful artists’ village. Budget 1-1.5 hours to visit the Château. In the summer, there are all sorts of medieval-themed activities like roaming minstrels and baking demonstrations.⁴ Rank 8

L’abbaye de Fontenay is a bit out of the way but a must-see for those interested in Church history. In addition to the twelfth-century buildings, there is a beautiful garden. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Allow one to two hours for your visit.⁵ Rank 7

Fans of candy (and who isn’t?) may be interested in visiting the charming village of Flavigny, home to the anise-flavoured Les Anis de Flavigny. The town is said to have been founded by one of Caesar’s veteran soldiers, Flavinius, around 52 BCE. The town’s Benedictine abbey was founded around 500 CE, pillaged by English besiegers in 1359, and is today a candy factory. In keeping with the candy theme, the exterior scenes of the 2000 movie Chocolat were filmed in Flavigny. Rank 7

Consider a side trip to the Canal de Bourgogne. You can bicycle along a portion of it or settle in for a day- or week-long cruise. The Canal connects the river Yonne at Migennes with the Saône at Saint-Jean-de-Losne.

Nearby Dijon has a pedestrian-friendly centre, medieval and renaissance architecture, and plenty of good restaurants. These features make Dijon a good place to anchor any visit to Bourgogne. The city also has a tourist trail that includes twenty-two stops throughout the city’s historic neighbourhoods (the parcours de chouette). A bronze owl identifies each stop. Maps are available at all Dijon tourist offices.⁶ Rank 7

Dijon also hosts a pretty good Museum of Fine Arts, featuring a hodge-podge collection.⁷ Rank 6

Dijon was also the site of three Battles of Dijon fought between Prussia and the Army of the Vosges in 1870 and 1871. The Army of the Vosges was a motley crew of five thousand to fifteen thousand volunteers from Italy, France, England, Ireland and America, all led by the famous Italian general Guiseppe Garabaldi.

¹ www.alesia.com

² www.parc-auxois.fr

³ www.chateau-bussy-rabutin.fr

⁴ chateauneuf.bourgognefranchecomte.eu

⁵ www.abbayedefontenay.com

⁶ www.destinationdijon.com

⁷ www.dijoncity.com

Châlons

THE BATTLE OF CHÂLONS—274 CE

During the end of the third century, the Roman Empire was having a tough time. In 260, the Emperor Valerian was defeated at the Battle of Edessa and taken prisoner by the Persian Emperor Shapur I. This was very bad for Valerian, who remained a prisoner for the rest of his life, reportedly forced to act as Shapur’s footstool when mounting his horse and suffering many other insults until he died either by being forced to drink molten gold or by being flayed alive (either way is a nasty way to go).

Valerian’s imprisonment caused much consternation in the Empire and shaky control in the hands of his son Gallienus. Sensing imperial weakness, several parts of the Empire staged revolts: the Palmyrene (Egypt, Syria, Judea, Arabia) and Pannonia (present day Hungary, Croatia and environs). Gallienus took the legions off to the Danube to deal with the latter revolt, leaving the popular governor of Germania, Marcus Cassianus Latinius Postumus, in charge of the Rhine frontier. Postumus was ambitious, however, and led his own revolt. He executed Gallienus’ young son and proclaimed the Gallic Empire in 260.

In 263, Gallienus tried to depose Postumus, without success. But Postumus’ position was not completely secure, and he was overthrown and executed by his own soldiers in 269. The next leader of the Gallic Empire was Marius, who lasted only a short while before being replaced by Marcus Victorinus. At the same time, a new emperor in Rome, Claudius Gothicus, began the process of recovering Roman lands from the Gallic Empire. Victorinus was assassinated in 271, and after another period of squabbles, Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus was made the new Gallic emperor. Tetricus spent most of his time fighting off incursions by Germanic barbarians and shoring up the borders of his empire.

Back in Rome, a new emperor, Aurelian, came to power in 270. A soldier through and through, Aurelian led the legions in suppressing rebellions in Palmyrene and turned his attention to Gaul in 274. Aurelian’s army engaged Tetricus’ around what is now Châlons-en-Champagne, France.

Aurelian’s army was well trained, organized and commanded, while Tetricus’ was rather ragtag and disorganized. Tetricus was captured in the fight, and the Gallic army lost all discipline and was routed by Aurelian’s troops. Tetricus and his son were taken to Rome and paraded in triumph, but otherwise spared further punishment. In fact, Aurelian made him a Roman administrator in charge of a part of southern Italy.

THE BATTLE OF THE CATALAUNIAN PLAINS—451 CE

The area near Châlons became a battlefield again in 451 when Roman and Visigoth forces united to stop invading Huns led by King Attila.

Attila the Hun was the leader of a coalition of Huns, Alans and Ostrogoths who poured into Western Europe from the East in 450-451. By that time, Attila’s horde had already plundered the Balkans and attacked Persia and the Byzantine Empire. In 451, he reached as far West as Orléans.

At that time, the Roman Empire was well into decline, and Roman authority outside of Italy was weak. In today’s France, the empire retained firm control only along the Mediterranean coastline and a region known as Aurelianum at present-day Orléans along the Seine and the Loire Rivers. The Visigoths controlled the area along the Garonne River. Determined to stop the Hun threat, the Western Roman emperor, Flavius Aetius, made common cause with the Visigothic king, Theodoric I. These two forces met the Huns in the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (also called the Battle of Maurica, Battle of the Campus Mauriacus or the Battle of Châlons).

Attila had crossed the Rhine early in 451 and sacked Divodurum (now Metz) on April 7. His main force crossed the Rhine at Worms or Mainz and then marched on Trier, Metz, Reims and finally Orléans. At the same time, it is believed that Hun raiding parties wandered north into Frankish territory to plunder the countryside. Sometime before June, Attila reached Aurelianum (modern Orléans), which he besieged but did not take.

The combined Roman and Visigoth force assembled at Arles and marched north to relieve Aurelianum, which they reached on June 14. Attila had already left, but the allies pursued him eastward. The two forces finally engaged somewhere on the Catalaunian Fields around June 20. Legend says Attila had his diviners examine the entrails of a sacrifice the morning of the battle, and they foretold that disaster would befall the Huns, but one of the enemy leaders would be killed.

The field of battle was dominated by a sharply-rising slope in the centre. The Huns established their line on the right side of the ridge, while the Romans seized the left. The crest of this ridge was to be the focus of battle. Hunnic forces launched an attack in the late afternoon on this ridge but were repulsed. Theodoric was killed in the assault, but despite this the Visigoths penetrated the Hunnish line and attacked Attila’s own Hunnic household unit. At nightfall, the outcome of the battle was unclear. Attila was forced to seek refuge in his own camp, which he had fortified with wagons, while Thorismund, dead King Theodoric’s son, was wounded, and Aetius separated from his own men. Morning light exposed a field piled high with bodies and Attila besieged in his camp. Legend says that at seeing this situation, Attila had a funeral pyre of horse saddles prepared that he intended to hurl himself into before being killed or captured. Lucky for Atilla, the allies called off the final attack so that Thorismund could rush home to secure the throne before being outmanoeuvred for power by his brothers (trust was pretty hard to come by in those days). Thorismund returned to Tolosa (present-day Toulouse) and became king without any resistance. Atilla was able to slip away and returned to invade the Western Roman Empire in 452.

One of the problems with chronicles from this age is their wholly unreliable estimates of numbers of combatants and casualties. Some accounts put the number of deaths at more than one hundred thousand, while other estimates suggest that the total number of combatants on both sides would have been less than sixty thousand. The only thing we can say with any certainty is that a great many warriors died that day, and the majority of these were likely Hunnic. As for the strategic importance of the battle? Historians generally agree it was indecisive. While the westward advance of Atilla’s army was checked, he lived to launch new attacks the following year.

THE BATTLEFIELDS TODAY

The actual location of the Catalaunian Fields is unclear, though it is generally agreed to be in the vicinity of Châlons-en-Champagne.

The actual site of the battle of 274 is unknown.

For the Battle of 451, a historian named Thomas Hodgkin placed the site near Méry-sur-Seine, while another historian (Phillippe Richardot) has proposed a site at La Cheppe, north of the modern town of Châlons. Yet another historian proposes a site closer to Saint-Lye. For our purposes, we are not going to fuss about this too much because, in the end, the actual location is unlikely to ever be confirmed. And let’s face it: the site is most likely now a farmer’s field. This does not mean you should reject visiting the area. If you want to visit what might be the site, we suggest you make your way to Aire de Repos de Camp d’Attila, which is located on the D994 just west of La Cheppe. There is a walking trail there that leads to Atilla’s Camp, and a bit farther to the east there is a field that may have been the site of the battle.

This region is overshadowed by a much more recent and better-known battle: the Champagne offensives of 1915.

As for Châlons-en-Champagne, this is a quaint town, and if you are in the area it is worth a visit. The local tourist office has put together a helpful two-hour tour, and this is a good guide to the town.⁸

Circus fans may also be interested in the town because it bills itself the Capital of Circus as it hosts the National Centre of Circus Art. In December, you can see a graduation show for the circus school, and in June, a circus and street art festival. For more information, visit this website and their Facebook Page.⁹

The town also hosts an annual agricultural festival (think champagne) and music festival.

⁸ www.tourisme-champagne-ardenne.com

⁹ www.cnac.fr

Autun

The Siege of Autun (356 CE) was part of an armed conflict between the Roman Empire and the invading barbarian tribe of Alemanni, who were ravaging Gaul. The Romans successfully defended the city, and the barbarians retreated on the approach of reinforcements.

The fight between Rome and the Alemanni arose out of the Roman civil war (350-353). At that time, the empire was split between two factions: that of Emperor Constantius II and of Magnentius. Here is how that came about. When Constantine I died in 337, his empire was divided between his three sons: Constantine II was granted Gaul, Spain and Britain; Constantius II was given Asia Minor, Egypt and Syria; and Constans I got Italy, North Africa and Illyricum (Greece). The brothers did not get along, and Constantine II was killed in a failed invasion of Italy by Constans’ soldiers, who gained hegemony over all the western provinces of the empire. Unfortunately for Constans, he was disliked by his military, and in 350 he was overthrown and died attempting escape.

With the death of Constans, the legions of the western empire appointed a Gallic commander, Magnentius, as the new Emperor of the West. So, by 350 there were just two emperors: Magnentius in the West, and Constantius II (the only remaining son of Constantine I) in the East.

To put pressure on Magnentius, Constantius urged the Alemanni to cross the Rhine and invade Magnentius’ dominions in Gaul. The Alemanni were a confederacy of Germanic-speaking people living in present-day Germany and had a long history of conflict with the Romans. This plan worked out well for Constantius, as the Alemanni, under the leadership of Chnodomar (also known as Chnodomarius), invaded Gaul and defeated the army of Magnentius. Elsewhere in the empire, the armies of Magnentius and Constantius clashed several times, but Magnentius suffered significant defeats at the Battle of Mursa (28 Sept 351 in present-day Croatia) and the Battle of Mons Seleucus (August 353 near present-day La Batie-Montsaléon in southeastern France). Magnentius committed suicide in August 353, and with that the civil war ended.

The Alemanni decided they liked the lands they had taken from Magnentius and declined to leave them at the end of the civil war. Constantius decided their removal was necessary, and for this purpose he initially conferred command of the western legions to a general named Claudius Silvanus. Silvanus instead led a revolt in Gaul in 355, and Constantius had him assassinated.

Leadership in Gaul was next given to Constantius’ cousin, Julian, who was given the title of Caesar of the West on 6 November 355 and dispatched to deal with the Alemanni.

In 356, just as Julian was beginning his campaign against the Alemanni, he learned that the city of Autun, the capital of the Aedui, was under siege by a large Alemanni force. At that time, Atun was an important centre and may have had a population as high as one hundred thousand. It had extensive wall fortifications, but in 356 these were in poor repair and mostly abandoned by the local garrison. Despite this, the city maintained a determined defence against the Alemanni, led by a group of veteran Roman soldiers residing in Autun. Julian’s army lifted the siege on 24 June. Following the rescue of Autun, Julian went on to defeat the Alemanni in a series of battles, most notably at Strasbourg in 357. Eventually, Julian and Constantius went to war against each other, but Constantius died before they could face each other in battle, and Julian was named emperor of all the Roman provinces in 361.

THE BATTLE OF AUTUN—532

While no battle site is identifiable from historical records, it is said that in 532 the soldiers of the Merovingian kings Clothar I and Childbert I fought and defeated the Begundian army of King Godomar at or near Autun.

THE BATTLE OF AUTUN—725

In 725, General Ibn Suhayam Al-Kalbi marched on Autun with his Umayyad army and captured the town after defeating local forces led by Bishop Émillen of Nantes.

AUTUN TODAY

Autun is a pleasant stopping point, highlighted by its cathedral. A series of curving roads take you to the town centre, and once you find a place to park take the time to stroll about the area around the cathedral. The Cathédrale Saint Lazare was originally built between 1120 and 1130 and added to over the centuries. Its claim to fame are the decorations by the twelfth-century French sculptor Gisiebertus, and in particular the Last Supper carving found at the cathedral entrance. There are several bistros on the adjacent streets. Rank 9

But for us, the real attraction of Autun are the remains of the original Roman fortifications that still surround much of the old town centre, particularly along Boulevard Mac Mahon. The fortifications date back to the Emperor Augustus and include the remains of two gates: Porte Saint André and the Porte d’Arroux. Drive (or even better, bicycle) around these walls and make your way to the Roman Theatre Just outside of town are the ruins of a Temple of Janus. Rank 9

Weekend concerts are held in the central square during the summer months. Market Days are held in the rooms of the city hall and on the forecourt on Wednesdays from 7:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m., and there is a large food market Fridays from 7:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m.

There are two annual fairs in Autun—in early March and early September. This is your chance to try tête de veau (yes, calf head) with a gribiche or ravigote sauce. Or you can be a bit less adventurous and stick to typical Burgundian dishes (beef bourguignon, poached eggs, coq au vin, Morvan cured ham).

For dining, try Comptoir Cuisine at the foot of the cathedral, 13 Place Du Terreau, or Restaurant Du Commerce at 20 Avenue de la République.

Other local sites include:

About a half-hour drive to the southeast of Autun is Château de Couches (Marguerite de Bourgogne), a once important fortification from the thirteenth century, which today offers tours, a winery and Chambre d’Hotes.¹⁰ Rank 6

Also about a half-hour drive from Autun (to the northeast) is Château de Sully, one of the rare châteaus the owners, the Magenta family, still live in all year round. Sully has been in the Mac Mahon family since the eighteenth century and was the birthplace of Field Marshal Maurice de Mac Mahon, elected French president in 1873, the only French president born in Burgundy. It is a very pretty spot.¹¹ Rank 7

Not far from Château de Sully and Château de Couches is the very pretty town of Beaune. This town is worthy of a visit if for no other reason than to see the Musée du Vin dans l’Hôtel des Ducs de Bourgogne. The museum is dedicated to the history of the culture of the vine and the making of wine. The museum is housed in an almshouse and hospital for the poor built in the 1400s, and it features timber framing. Beaune is thoroughly Burgundian. It is very picturesque, with cobbled streets, shaded squares and a scattering of historic buildings. Beaune is at the centre of some sixty hectares of Grand and Premier Cru vineyards and is the venue for a famous charity wine auction every November. The centre of Beaune is a joy to stroll around and, of course, a great place to find outstanding wine.

The archeological site of Bibracte, pre-Roman Gaul’s largest city, is on Mont Beuvray near Autun. Bibracte was a hill settlement of ten thousand that was abandoned after the Roman conquest and only rediscovered in the eighteenth century. It was here that Vercingetorix was announced as leader of the Gauls in 52 BCE before the pivotal Battle of Alesia. The Museum of Celtic Civilization at Bibracte tells the history of the site, including about the Battle of Bibracte fought in 58 BCE between six legions of Julius Caesar’s army and the Helveti tribe.¹² Rank 7

¹⁰ www.chateaudecouches.com

¹¹ www.chateaudesully.com

¹² www.bibracte.fr

Strasbourg

Strasbourg is the capital of the Alsace region and lies on the border with Germany. In the twelfth century, the Romans established a military camp in Strasbourg in recognition of its strategic position situated at the meeting point between the north-south and east-west trade routes. Despite this strategic location, Strasbourg has only been the site of two significant historical battles.

357 CE

In 357, the Western Roman army under the command of Caesar Julian fought a battle against the Alamanni tribal confederation under the command of King Chnodomar. The battle is also known as the Battle of Argentoratum.

In the 350s, the Roman Empire was jointly ruled by two sons of Constantine the Great: Constans in the west and Constantius II in the east. Constans was overthrown and killed by a usurper named Magentius in January 350. Magentius and Constantius II promptly initiated a civil war, which wiped out many of the best Roman soldiers. While the Romans were slaughtering each other, the Alamanni took the opportunity to overrun much of Eastern Gaul. Not much could be done about this until the civil war was resolved, and the final bloody battle was fought in 353—the Battle of Mons Selecus—where Magentius died.

Adding to Constantius’ problems was a series of attacks by the Persians in the east. Constantius had to deal with the Persians, but knew he also needed to take care of problems in Gaul. He decided to appoint his twenty-three-year-old cousin, Julian, as deputy emperor—Caesar—of Gaul, Spain and Britain. He was given overall command of forces in Gaul with instructions to subdue the area. Julian’s only apparent qualification for his appointment was he was related to Constantius and so, theoretically, more trustworthy. Before assuming command of the army, Julian had spent most of his time studying philosophy in Athens.

The situation Julian found in Gaul was desperate. The Alamanni were a group of fragmented tribes who, nevertheless, were occasionally able to unite under a strong leader. Chnodomar appears to have been such a leader. The Alamanni were allied with the Franks. The defensive line of the Rhine had largely collapsed, and many of the important Roman forts were in the hands of the Alamanni, including the most important fortress of Cologne. Large barbarian bands were pillaging throughout northeastern Gaul without opposition. The Roman garrisons were severely under strength.

Julian turned out to be a capable military leader. In 356, he moved with a force of about five hundred and sixty men to link up with the bulk of the army near Reims. En route, he surprised and defeated a barbarian force that was besieging Autun. In Reims, in consultation with senior commanders, it was decided to liberate Cologne prior to attacking Alsace. Cologne was taken without a fight and re-fortified. Julian also entered a truce with the Franks who were around Cologne, thereby significantly reducing the forces against him. Julian next marched the bulk of his force to winter quarters at Sens, although he dispersed many troops to Reims. During the winter of 356/7, the Germans besieged Julian at Sens for one month but were unable to breach Roman defences.

In 357, Julian benefitted from the dispatch from Italy of a twenty-five-thousand-man force under the command of magister peditum Barbatio. They planned to attack the Alamanni in a pincer manoeuvre with Julian advancing