A Jesuit Garden in Beijing and Early Modern Chinese Culture

By Hui Zou

In this volume, Hui Zou analyzes historical, architectural, visual, literary, and philosophical perspectives on the Western-styled garden that formed part of the great Yuanming Yuan complex in Beijing, constructed during the Qing dynasty. Designed and built in the late eighteenth century by Italian and French Jesuits, the garden described in this book was a wonderland of multistoried buildings, fountains, labyrinths, and geometrical hills. It even included an open-air theater. Through detailed examination of historical literature and representations, Zou analyzes the ways in which the Jesuits accommodated their design within the Chinese cultural context. He shows how an especially important element of their approach was the application of a linear perspective—the "line-method"—to create the jing, the Chinese concept of the bounded bright view of a garden scene. Hui Zou's book demonstrates how Jesuit metaphysics fused with Chinese cosmology and broadens our understanding of cultural and religious encounters in early Chinese modernity. It presents an intriguing reflection on the interaction between Western metaphysics and the poetical tradition of Chinese culture. The volume will be of interest to scholars and students in a variety of fields, including literature, philosophy, architecture, landscape and urban studies, and East-West comparative cultural studies.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Purdue University Press
• Release date: Feb 1, 2011
• ISBN: 9781612491899

Book preview

A Jesuit Garden in Beijing and

Early Modern Chinese Culture

Comparative Cultural Studies

Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek, Series Editor

The Purdue University Press monograph series of Books in Comparative Cultural Studies publishes single-authored and thematic collected volumes of new scholarship. Manuscripts are invited for publication in the series in fields of the study of culture, literature, the arts, media studies, communication studies, the history of ideas, etc., and related disciplines of the humanities and social sciences to the series editor via email at . Comparative cultural studies is a contextual approach in the study of culture in a global and intercultural context and work with a plurality of methods and approaches; the theoretical and methodological framework of comparative cultural studies is built on tenets borrowed from the disciplines of cultural studies and comparative literature and from a range of thought including literary and culture theory, (radical) constructivism, communication theories, and systems theories; in comparative cultural studies focus is on theory and method as well as application. For a detailed description of the aims and scope of the series including the style guide of the series link to <http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/clcweblibrary/seriespurdueccs>. Manuscripts submitted to the series are peer reviewed followed by the usual standards of editing, copy editing, marketing, and distribution. The series is affiliated with CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture (ISSN 1481-4374), the peer-reviewed, full-text, and open-access quarterly published by Purdue University Press at .

Volumes in the Purdue series of Books in Comparative Cultural Studies

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Hui Zou, A Jesuit Garden in Beijing and Early Modern Chinese Culture

Yi Zheng, From Burke and Wordsworth to the Modern Sublime in Chinese Literature

Agata Anna Lisiak, Urban Cultures in (Post)Colonial Central Europe

Representing Humanity in an Age of Terror, Ed. Sophia A. McClennen and Henry James Morello

Michael Goddard, Gombrowicz, Polish Modernism, and the Subversion of Form Shakespeare in Hollywood, Asia, and Cyberspace, Ed. Alexander C.Y. Huang and Charles S. Ross

Gustav Shpet’s Contribution to Philosophy and Cultural Theory, Ed. Galin Tihanov

Comparative Central European Holocaust Studies, Ed. Louise O. Vasvári and Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek

Marko Juvan, History and Poetics of Intertextuality

Thomas O. Beebee, Nation and Region in Modern American and European Fiction

Paolo Bartoloni, On the Cultures of Exile, Translation, and Writing

Justyna Sempruch, Fantasies of Gender and the Witch in Feminist Theory and Literature

Kimberly Chabot Davis, Postmodern Texts and Emotional Audiences

Philippe Codde, The Jewish American Novel

Deborah Streifford Reisinger, Crime and Media in Contemporary France

Imre Kertész and Holocaust Literature, Ed. Louise O. Vasvári and Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek

Camilla Fojas, Cosmopolitanism in the Americas

Comparative Cultural Studies and Michael Ondaatje’s Writing, Ed. Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek

Jin Feng, The New Woman in Early Twentieth-Century Chinese Fiction

Comparative Cultural Studies and Latin America, Ed. Sophia A. McClennen and Earl E. Fitz Sophia A. McClennen, The Dialectics of Exile

Comparative Literature and Comparative Cultural Studies, Ed. Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek

Comparative Central European Culture, Ed. Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek

Hui Zou

A Jesuit Garden in Beijing and

Early Modern Chinese Culture

Purdue University Press

West Lafayette, Indiana

Copyright 2011 by Purdue University. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Zou, Hui, 1967-

    A Jesuit Garden in Beijing and Early Modern Chinese Culture / Hui Zou.

        p. cm. -- (Comparative cultural studies)

    Includes bibliographical references and index.

    ISBN 978-1-55753-583-2

    1. Yuan Ming Yuan (Beijing, China)--History. 2. Historic gardens--China--Beijing. 3. Gardens, European--China--Beijing--History--18th century. 4. Jesuits--China--Beijing--History--18th century. 5. Kangxi, Emperor of China, 1654-1722. 6. Qianlong, Emperor of China, 1711-1799. 7. Gardens--China--Beijing--Design--History--18th century. 8. Gardens--Social aspects--China--Beijing--History--18th century. 9. Landscape gardening--China--Beijing--History--18th century. 10. China--Civilization--1644-1912. I. Title.

    SB466.C53Y838 2011

    712’.60951156--dc22

2010044565

Cover image: Detail, copperplate of the Hill of Line Method, drawn by Lantai Yi, 1786. Yuan Ming Yuan, 1783-1786. Research Library, The Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California.

Contents

Acknowledgments

Chapter One

A Theoretical and Historical Introduction to the Chinese Garden

Chapter Two

The Chinese Garden and the Concept of the Virtue of Round Brightness

Chapter Three

The Chinese Garden and the Concept of the Vision of Jing

Chapter Four

The Chinese Garden and Western Linear Perspective

Chapter Five

The Chinese Garden and the Concept of the Line Method

Conclusion

Works Cited

Appendix

1. Kangxi’s Record of the Garden of Uninhibited Spring

2. Kangxi’s Record of the Mountain Hamlet for Summer Coolness

3. Qianlong’s Later Record of the Mountain Hamlet for Summer Coolness

4. Qianlong’s Record of the Village of Ten Thousand Springs

5. Qianlong’s Record of Kunming Lake by Longevity Hill

6. Qianlong’s Record of the Garden of Clear Ripples on Longevity Hill

7. Qianlong’s Record of the Best Spring of China on Jade-Spring Hill

8. Qianlong’s Record of the Garden of Tranquil Pleasure

Index

Acknowledgments

This book is a result of my journey of research over the past ten years. I am indebted to Alberto Pérez-Gómez in architectural history, Michel Conan in garden history, and James Bradford in philosophy, who all influenced my understanding of the built environment through an interdisciplinary perpsective. I also received valuable comments from David Leatherbarrow, Marco Frascari, Louise Pelletier, Gregory Caicco, George Hersey, Stanislaus Fung, Martin Bressani, John Dixon Hunt, Peter Jacobs, Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn, Steven West, Richard Strassberg, Martin J. Powers, Giorgio Galletti, Xin Wu, Aicha Malek, Jonathan Chaves, Lara Ingeman, John Witek, Duncan Campbell, and John Finlay. This diverse group of scholars came from the various disciplines of architectural history, garden history, and Sinology. During my field and archival research in China, I exchanged views with a number of architecture and garden historians including Xiaowei Luo, Weiquan Zhou, Zhaofen Zeng, Hongxun Yang, and Enyin Zhang, to whom I pay my high respect in the Confucian sense. I am grateful to Barbara R. Martin for reading my manuscript with such patience. My gratitude also goes to John E. Hancock, Jean-Paul Boudier, Wenhong Zhu, and Fangji Wang for their support and friendship. For the research and writing of the book I benefited from assistance from the following libraries and I am grateful for the help I received: McGill University, the Canadian Centre for Architecture, Dumbarton Oaks Researach Library and Collection, Library of Congress, Georgetown University, the Chinese painting collections of Freer Gallery, University of Florida, National Library of China, and The First Historical Archive of China. My translations of the Qing emperors’ garden records presented in the appendices were supported by a fellowship of garden history at Dumbarton Oaks of Harvard University in 2001-2002. My research and writing has been wholeheartedly supported by my family and I dedicate this book to them. I thank the editor of the Purdue University Press monograph series of Books in Comparative Cultural Studies, Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek, for his interest in and support of my work. Last but not least, I thank the anonymous reviewers of the book for their valuable comments and the staff of the Purdue University Press for their professional assistance.

Chapter One

A Theoretical and Historical Introduction to the

Chinese Garden

In modern-day China, when people hear the term yuanming (literally, round brightness), they probably think of two wonders: one is the bright full moon appearing at the middle of each month; another is the Yuanming Yuan, literally, Garden of Round Brightness, which exists only in their minds. On the night of the eighth full moon, when the moonlight is the brightest of the year, each Chinese family celebrates the traditional Mid-Autumn Festival by remembering its family members who live a great distance away. The memory of the dearest under the round brightness somehow echoes the nostalgia for the lost Yuanming Yuan. As an imperial garden of the Qing dynasty, the Yuanming Yuan is unique in the history of gardens because of its grandness as well as its enclosed, small Western garden. For many Chinese, the memory of this lost garden is typically composed of two mental images: the first of a huge fire burning down the garden and the second of white marble stones of Western buildings scattered along the grass. Regarding the name of the garden, Yuanming, there is not a clear and unified understanding of its meaning in scholarship or by the public. What causes confusion is the question of how a poetical Chinese name, which recalls the full moon, can be connected with the exotic images of Western buildings.

The Yuanming Yuan was built by Emperor Yongzheng and named by his father, Emperor Kangxi, in 1709. In his record of the garden, Yongzheng states that he tried to research ancient books for the moral meaning of Yuanming and seek the spring terrace and the happy kingdom for his people (Yongzheng, Shizong). He expresses his desires through two historical allusions. The first is the spring terrace, which, indicating a beautiful touring place, is quoted from the Daoist sage Laozi (Fu and Lu 27); the second is happy kingdom, which, indicating a fish pool, is quoted from another Daoist sage Zhuangzi (F. Wang 148). Both sages lived during the Warring States period, some two thousand years before Yongzheng’s time. He utilized these two historical allusions to express his ideal of a model nation and identified it with his garden residence. Emperor Qianlong, Yongzheng’s fourth son, reiterated the same historical allusions in his records and went on to say that an emperor must have his own place for roaming in order to appreciate expansive landscapes. When he made this statement, he had in mind all the imperial gardens throughout history. Such a diachronically comparative perspective was further demonstrated when he stated that the Yuanming Yuan accumulated the blessings of the land and heaven and offered a touring place that nothing could surpass (Yuanmingyuan). These two garden records demonstrate a strong historical dimension in interpreting the meanings of the garden. By referring to how other emperors functioned in their gardens throughout history, the Qing emperors tried to build their own meaning for the garden. The historical dimension in their interpretations helped them define the historical horizon, the historicity, for their roaming in the garden. Following the emperors’ interpretative approach, I pinpoint here some key aspects of Chinese imperial gardens that helped define the historicity of the Yuanming Yuan.

The terrace in Laozi’s spring terrace, as a type of garden building, can be traced back to the earliest imperial gardens in the Western Zhou dynasty, where a square terrace was used for looking into the distance and observing the sky and celestial divinities. A well-known example is King Wen’s sacred terrace. According to the Shijing (Book of Odes), King Wen planned the sacred terrace by himself. He was in the sacred enclosure where female deer with colored fur and birds with pure white feathers lived. He walked near the sacred pool where water was full and fish were jumping (S. Li 503). Citing the same story, the Confucian saint Mengzi (Mencious) emphasized the ethical importance of King Wen and his people working together to build the sacred garden they enjoyed together (H. Liu 158). Yongzheng’s allusions to the spring terrace and happy kingdom hinted at the ethical importance of King Wen’s terrace, that is, his own time in the Yuanming Yuan was spent longing for the happiness of all the people. In the postscript for the emperors’ garden records of the Yuanming Yuan, the court editors and annotators alluded specifically to King Wen’s terrace and pool as well as to the happiness and brightness which he received in his garden (E). Yongzheng identified his life in the garden with his moral administration of the nation.

Embodying the belief of a happy kingdom, an imperial garden needed to be large enough for the emperor to roam and appreciate expansive landscapes. During the spring and autumn, the imperial garden Zhanghua Terrace of Chu Kingdom made use of the natural lakes, called Water of Cloudy Dreams, to procure an expansive view. As recorded by the Han scholar Xiangru Sima in his rhapsody, the Cloudy Dreams had nine hundred miles on each side, and there were mountains in it (X. Sima, Zixu 49-50). Such an expansive view was characteristic of imperial gardens but impossible in small literati gardens. To understand the close view in a contemporaneous literati garden, we can refer to the romantic poems of Chu Kingdom, such as Goddess of the Xiang River by Yuan Qu and Summon the Soul by his student Yu Song. The latter poem describes how he leaned on the balustrade to look down on a winding pool (282). Both poems tell of the building of a beautiful place in the water for the arrival of an immortal being. Continuing the tradition of the massive size of imperial gardens, the expansive landscapes in the Yuanming Yuan were unique in that they were entirely man-made, unlike other imperial gardens where the landscapes were primarily natural. The huge scale of such an artificially made imperial garden was unprecedented. The Shanglin Park of the first Chinese emperor Shi Huangdi of Qin was located between the Wei River and Zhongnan Mountain. The garden was expansive, but its largest part was its natural landscapes. The emperor depended upon double-floor passageways to pass through the wilderness in order to move from one palace to another. The covered passageways, according to the history book Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), were intended to hide his movement from the public so that he could act mysteriously to avoid devils and meanwhile embrace virtuous individuals and his spirit would remain a secret and panacea would be obtained (Q. Sima 38).

As stated in the emperors’ records, the Yuanming Yuan symbolized the happy kingdom of the whole nation. Such a symbolic relationship between a garden and the world at large can be traced back to the pattern—one pool and three island hills (yichi sanshan)—in imperial gardens, which first appeared in the Orchid Pool, east of Shi Huangdi’s Xianyang Palace. The pattern symbolized the legendary three islands in the East Sea to which the emperor sent Daoists repeatedly for panaceas. According to the Shiji, each previous king was unwilling to give up the fantasy of the three islands. The symbolic relationship between the huge body of water in a garden and the sea was further developed in the imperial Shanglin Park of the West Han dynasty where the huge lake, Kunming, was symbolically taken as a sea for exercising the emperor Wudi of Han’s naval fleet. The symbolic relationship between the water in the garden and the sea continued into the Qing imperial gardens, where an expansive lake was typically called a sea. Although the lake symbolized the sea, for the most part Shanglin Park remained as wilderness without symbolization. Xiangru Sima exclaimed in his Rhapsody of Shanglin that when one looked at Shanglin Park, it appeared that there was no beginning and no end. In the park, retreat palaces and remote lodges were scattered among the mountains and straddled the valleys. Tall, covered passageways poured out in four directions (X. Sima, Shanglin 52-53). Sima, in his descriptions of landscapes, was in awe of mystical nature. Buildings in the enormous park were diminished by the grandness of the landscapes and appeared dwarfed by their surroundings.

Besides the expansive Shanglin Park, Wudi had smaller gardens at his palaces near the capital of Chang’an. In the northwestern corner of the Jianzhang Palace was the Lake of Primary Liquid, where three islands were set up to symbolize the three fairylands: Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou in the East Sea. According to the Shiji, the same names of these three fairylands were given to the three hills in the garden. By giving them the same names, the emperor reinforced the symbolic relationship between his garden and the fairylands. Wudi even built watchtowers on the shore of the East Sea to wait for the arrival of immortal beings, because immortal beings always prefer a multistoried residence (Q. Sima 84-85).

Expansive lakes began to formally be called seas in the imperial gardens during the period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties. There was a sea named Pool of Heavenly Deep Water in the imperial Hualin Garden in the capital of Luoyang in Northern Wei. According to the Luoyang qielan ji (Records of the Monasteries in Luoyang), in the pool there was an island named Penglai on which there was a Celestial Lodge and Fishing Terrace, both of which were connected by a rainbow skywalk, where walking was like flying (X. Yang 57). The Shuijing zhu (Commentaries on the Waterways Classic) recorded that visitors moved about in this garden like celestial birds, up and down in a divine residence (Daoyuan Li 246). Both records create an impression that the imperial Hualin Garden was designed intentionally to imitate a fairyland. The capital of the Southern Dynasties was Jiankang, where there was another imperial Hualin Garden, with the same name as that of Northern Wei. When Emperor Jianwen of Eastern Jin entered this garden, he announced: To meet my heart, I do not need to go far. The shady woods and cool water have made me feel like being between the Hao and Pu Rivers; birds, beasts, poultry and fish all come to be intimate with me (Yiqing Liu 31). The Hao and Pu Rivers alluded to the story that the Daoist sage, Zhuangzi, fished by the Pu River and roamed on a bridge of the Hao River. This classic historical tale signified delight in nature (Fu and Lu 272-73). Jianwen’s expression was significant in that it demonstrated his longing for remoteness in the garden, which was typical in literati gardens but rare in imperial gardens. It shows that imperial gardens in the Southern Dynasties had been influenced by private gardens.

In later dynasties, such as the Sui and Tang, the capital, Chang’an, was located southeast of the Chang’an of the Han dynasty. Between the Wei River and the capital was an expansive area known as the Forbidden Park. In addition to providing entertainment and hunting for the emperor, the park acted as a buffer zone between the river to the north and the capital to the south. Strategically important for the defense of the capital, the park was also where the imperial troops were based. In consideration of provisions, the Sui and Tang dynasties adopted a two-capital system, with a western capital, Chang’an and an eastern capital, Luoyang. West of Luoyang was another Forbidden Park, which was planned around an artificial lake, called Northern Sea, in which three sacred hills named Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou were built. In addition, five lakes were created to symbolize, for the first time in history, the geographical feature of China—five lakes and four seas (wuhu sihai). Groups of buildings were scattered about on the northern side of the Northern Sea. These building groups were in fact gardens within a garden. The strategic importance for defense and the pattern of gardens within a garden had significant influences upon later imperial gardens. Further, the influence of fengshui, the ancient environmental philosophy connected with cosmology, was manifested by the imperial garden, Genyue, of the Northern Song dynasty. The name Genyue means Gen Mount. Owing to the Daoist cosmological graph of eight trigrams, the northeast was called gen, signifying mountain, and thus the garden’s name. A Daoist fengshui master told the emperor Huizong (Ji Zhao) that the northeastern corner of the inner city of the capital was too low and needed to be raised for the prosperity of the imperial family. Huizong was convinced, and took part in the design of a hilly garden in that part of the city. The whole garden was composed of artificial landscapes that included hills, lakes, and some gorges connecting the lakes. No imperial garden throughout history had been constructed with artificial landscapes on such a huge scale. There were over one hundred recorded discrete scenes, most of which were named in two or three Chinese characters in accordance with the views. Huizong’s garden record notes that Genyue was to contain all the beauties of the different landscapes in the country (65). The idea that the emperor’s garden should be an epitome of the beauties of all other gardens in the country was expressed strongly, and this idea was adopted in creating the Yuanming Yuan.

Following the Song dynasty, the Yuan and Ming imperial gardens continued the pattern of one pool and three island hills. It was during the Yuan dynasty that the capital of China moved to Beijing, and both the Yuan and Ming imperial gardens were located within the city. The gardens were arranged around the Lake of Primary Liquid where water originated from a spring on Jade Spring Hill located in the northwestern suburb of the city. A parallel water source in the same suburb, the Lake of Urn Hill, led into the Lake of Collected Water within the city, just north of the imperial gardens. During the Yuan dynasty, these two watercourses paralleled each other from the northwestern suburb to the west of the inner city, yet they were strictly separated. The water from Jade Spring Hill was used to provide irrigation for the imperial gardens, while the water from the Lake of Urn Hill was used as a method for food transportation. The separation of watercourses showed the importance of water quality in the imperial gardens and it was during the Ming dynasty that these two watercourses were merged. The Lake of Collected Water, initially used for food transportation, was now connected to the Northern Sea, which was part of previous Lake of Primary Liquid, for the purpose of irrigating the imperial gardens. Thus, the water of the imperial gardens now came from both Jade Spring Hill and the West Lake, which was formerly the Lake of Urn Hill. The imperial gardens in both the Yuan and Ming dynasties showed the importance of the water sources in the northwestern suburb. Later, during the Qing dynasty, emperor Kangxi began to perform administrative duties in his residence garden. Owing to the serene environment of the Southern Sea, which was part of the Ming imperial gardens within the city, Kangxi engaged in numerous activities within this portion of the garden, including processing national affairs, receiving officials, and performing agricultural activities. At the midpoint of his reign, following the suppression of internal riots and the stabilization of the country, Kangxi began to shift his attention to the northwestern suburb to make new gardens. The site was selected for a number of reasons, including weather conditions and its proximity to both the beautiful landscape of West Mountain and the wilderness. The Qing emperors’ ancestors, the Manchu people, originated from northeast China and were not accustomed to the hot summers in Beijing and thus sought places that provided coolness. The first Qing emperor, Shunzhi, once complained that the environment of Beijing was not clean and its water was salty and that the summer heat of Beijing was unbearable (W. Zhou, Yuanmingyuan 149).

The dominant landscape in the northwestern suburb of Beijing is West Mountain, described as the right arm of the divine capital (Y. Jiang 52). The mountain range extended from south to north and it had an eastward spur at Fragrant Hill, which surrounded a plain to the south and east where most of Qing imperial gardens were located. Traditionally, the capital of China was located in the north, to look upon the land towards the south; therefore, the imperial throne always faced to the south. Since West Mountain was west of the capital, it looked like the right arm of the imperial throne. West Mountain served as a buffer zone between the capital and the northern frontier and thus the northwestern suburb held strategic importance to the city of Beijing. The first imperial garden within the northwestern suburb, known as the Garden of Uninhibited Spring (Changchun Yuan), was built by Kangxi in 1687. In 1684, Kangxi visited the Jiangnan region for the first time and was impressed by its beautiful landscapes and private gardens. Upon his return to Beijing, he built the Garden of Uninhibited Spring on the ruined garden site of a Ming imperial family member. The water source for the garden was spring water from the Village of Ten Thousand Springs (Wanquan Zhuang). At that time, the western water sources from the West Lake and Jade Spring Hill were not yet used for the imperial gardens in this area. Kangxi spent much time in the garden, where he occasionally held audience and performed administrative duties.

In 1703, Kangxi began to build a retreat garden, Mountain Hamlet for Summer Coolness (Bishu Shanzhuang), which was located in Chengde, north of the capital. The location of the garden was related to the emperor’s northern patrol where he received Mongolian aristocrats in order to establish a stable state of affairs in the northern territory. Within the garden, he named thirty-six scenes, each with a title of four Chinese characters. Each scene indicated a specific garden view. After naming the thirty-six scenes, Kangxi ordered a court painter to create a painting of each scene, for which he wrote an accompanying poem. The pairing of painting and poetry for the representation of garden scenes was continued by later Qing emperors. In 1709, one year after the Mountain Hamlet for Summer Coolness was built, Kangxi turned his attention to the northwestern suburb of the capital. He granted a piece of land north of his Garden of Uninhibited Spring to his fourth son, Prince Yinzhen. On this site, Yinzhen built the Yuanming Yuan. After Yinzhen took the throne and became emperor Yongzheng, he expanded the garden and used it as his permanent residence and a place for holding audience. This garden served as the permanent residence for five Qing emperors, Yongzheng, Qianlong, Jiaqing, Daoguang, and Xianfeng, before being destroyed by fire in 1860 by the French and British armies.

During the Qianlong reign, the Yuanming Yuan consisted of four gardens: three Chinese—the original Yuanming Yuan, Garden of Eternal Spring (Changchun Yuan), and Garden of Gorgeous Spring (Qichun Yuan) which was later called Garden of Ten Thousand Springs (Wanchun Yuan)—and a small Western garden called Western Multistoried Buildings (Xiyang Lou), which was designed and cobuilt by the European Jesuits, who served as painters and clockmakers in the imperial court. Although the name of Yuanming was originally given to the first garden in this complex, it later was used by the public to signify the whole complex; thus, all four gardens combined came to be known as the Yuanming Yuan (figure 1).

Garden A. Yuanming Yuan

1. Uprightness and Brightness (Zhengda Guangming)

2. Diligent Administration and Affection to Virtuous Men (Qinzheng Qinxian)

3. Peace for All China (Jiuzhou Qingyan)

4. Carving the Moon and Opening Clouds (Louyue Kaiyun)

5. Natural Scenery (Tianran Tuhua)

6. Study Room under Green Phoenix Trees (Bitong Shuyuan)

7. Mercy Clouds Protecting All (Ciyun Puhu)

8. Oneness of Sky and Water (Shangxia Tianguang).

9. Wine Shop in an Apricot Flower Village (Xinghua Cunguan)

10. Magnanimous and Big Hearted (Tantan Dangdang)

11. Integrating the Past and the Present (Rugu Hanjin)

12. Fairy Lodge in Eternal Spring (Changchun Xianguan)

13. Universal Peace (Wanfang Anhe)

14. Spring Beauty at Wuling (Wuling Chunse)

15. High Mountain and Long River (Shangao Shuichang)

16. Living in Clouds under the Moon (Yuedi Yunju)

17. Great Kindness and Eternal Blessing (Hongci Yonghu)

18. An Academy for Great Talents (Huifang Shuyuan)

19. Jade Temples under Bright Sky (Ritian Linyu)

20. Simple Life in Peaceful Surroundings (Danbo Ningjing)

21. Orchid Fragrance over the Water (Yingshui Lanxiang)

22. Clear Water and Rustling Tress (Shuimu Mingse)

23. Xi Lian’s Wonderful Place for Study (Lianxi Lechu)

24. Bountiful Crops like Coming Clouds (Duojia Ruyun)

25. Fish Leaping and Bird Flying (Yuyue Yuanfei)

26. Far Northern Mountain Village (Beiyuan Shancun)

27. Elegant View of the Western Peaks (Xifeng Xiuse)

28. Study Room for Four Seasons (Siyi Shuwu)

29. Wonderland in a Square Pot (Fanghu Shengjing)

30. Open Minded and Enlightened (Hanxu Langjian)

31. Calm Lake under Autumn Moon (Pinghu Qiuyue).

32. Immortal Abode on a Fairy Island (Pengdao Yaotai)

33. Cottage with a View of Pretty Mountains (Jiexiu Shanfang)

34. Another Paradise (Bieyou Dongtian)

35. Reflection of Two Waters on a Bridge and the Roaring of Waterfall (Jiajing Mingqin)

36. Bathing Body and Enhancing Virtue (Zaoshen Yude)

Figure 1. The Yuanming Yuan complex (drawn by Hui Zou)

37. Boundless Openness (Kuoran Dagong)

38. Sitting on a Rock and Taking a Wine Cup from a Winding Stream (Zuoshi Linliu)

39. Waving Lotus in a Winery Court (Quyuan Fenghe)

40. Deep and Remote Dwelling (Dongtian Shenchu)

Garden B. Garden of Eternal Spring (Changchun Yuan):

1. Hall of Wet Orchids (Zelan Tang)

2. Lion Grove (Shizi Lin)

3. Garden of Little Heaven (Xiaoyoutian Yuan)

4. Gallery of Unsophisticated Transformation (Chunhua Xuan)

Garden C. Garden of Gorgeous Spring (Qichun Yuan)

Garden D. Western Multistoried Buildings (Xiyang Lou):

1. Harmony, Wonder, and Delight (Xie Qi Qu)

2. Water Storage Multistoried Building (Xushui Lou)

3. Flower Garden (Hua Yuan)

4. Cages for Raising Birds (Yangque Long)

5. The View beyond the World (Fangwai Guan)

6. Bamboo Pavilions (Zhu Ting)

7. Hall of Peaceful Sea (Haiyan Tang)

8. Viewing the Water Method (Guan Shuifa)

9. Big Water Method (Da Shuifa)

10. View of Distant Sea (Yuanying Guan)

11. Gate of the Hill of Line Method (Xianfa-Shan Men)

12. Hill of Line Method (Xianfa Shan)

13. Eastern Gate of the Hill of Line Method (Xianfa-Shan Dongmen)

14. Square River (Fang He)

15. Paintings of Line Method (Xianfa Hua)

16. Bridge of Line Method (Xianfa Qiao)

Qianlong expanded the Yuanming Yuan into a complex. Like his grandfather, Kangxi, he visited Jiangnan six times and was impressed by the private gardens there. For each garden that he liked, he would ask a court painter to produce a painting and bring it back to Beijing for a reference from which to create new gardens. He made his first expansion of the Yuanming Yuan by 1744. He did not greatly increase the land size, but he formally established the so-called Forty Scenes (Sishi jing), at least twenty-eight of which were built by Yongzheng. In