Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis: Volume 2: Radioanalytical Applications

By Michael F. L'Annunziata

Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis: Radiation Physics and Detectors, Volume One, and Radioanalytical Applications, Volume Two, Fourth Edition, constitute an authoritative reference on the principles, practical techniques and procedures for the accurate measurement of radioactivity - everything from the very low levels encountered in the environment, to higher levels measured in radioisotope research, clinical laboratories, biological sciences, radionuclide standardization, nuclear medicine, nuclear power, and fuel cycle facilities, and in the implementation of nuclear forensic analysis and nuclear safeguards. It includes sample preparation techniques for all types of matrices found in the environment, including soil, water, air, plant matter and animal tissue, and surface swipes.Users will find the latest advances in the applications of radioactivity analysis across various fields, including environmental monitoring, radiochemical standardization, high-resolution beta imaging, automated radiochemical separation, nuclear forensics, and more.

• Spans two volumes, Radiation Physics and Detectors and Radioanalytical Applications
• Includes a new chapter on the analysis of environmental radionuclides
• Provides the latest advances in the applications of liquid and solid scintillation analysis, alpha- and gamma spectrometry, mass spectrometric analysis, Cherenkov counting, flow-cell radionuclide analysis, radionuclide standardization, aerosol analysis, high-resolution beta imaging techniques, analytical techniques in nuclear forensics, and nuclear safeguards
• Describes the timesaving techniques of computer-controlled automatic separation and activity analysis of radionuclides
• Provides an extensive table of the radiation characteristics of most radionuclides of interest for the radioanalytical chemist

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Mar 7, 2020
• ISBN: 9780128143964

Book preview

Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis

Volume 2: Radioanalytical Applications

Fourth Edition

Editor

Michael F. L'Annunziata

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Contributors

About the Founding Editor

Foreword

Preface to the fourth edition

Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Symbols

Chapter 1. Environmental radioactivity monitoring

I. Introduction: objective of environmental monitoring

II. Types of monitoring programs

III. Fundamentals of environmental monitoring

IV. Monitoring for internal exposure

V. Monitoring for external exposure

VI. Mobile monitoring

Chapter 2. Environmental liquid scintillation analysis

I. Introduction

II. Low-level liquid scintillation counting theory

III. Alpha/beta discrimination

IV. Triple-to-double coincidence ratio (TDCR) counting

V. Analysis of alpha-emitting transuranic nuclides

VI. Analysis of beta-emitting radionuclides

VII. Analysis of radionuclides from natural decay series

VIII. Spectrum deconvolution methods in environmental analysis

Chapter 3. Analysis of environmental radionuclides

I. Introduction

II. Environmental radionuclides

III. Radionuclide compartments

IV. Analytical techniques

V. Radionuclide analyses

VI. International networks for monitoring of environmental radionuclides

VII. Conclusions

Chapter 4. Radioactive aerosol analysis

I. Introduction

II. Radioactive aerosol sampling and measurement

III. Radioactive aerosols in ambient air

IV. Residence time of radioactive aerosols

Chapter 5. Marine radioactivity analysis

I. Introduction

II. Sampling techniques

III. Underwater gamma-ray spectrometry

IV. Analysis of natural radionuclides

V. Analysis of anthropogenic radionuclides

VI. Activity measurement techniques

VII. Analysis of radioactive particles

VIII. Management of data quality

IX. Marine radioactivity databases

X. Examples of marine radioactivity studies

XI. Conclusions

Chapter 6. Cherenkov counting

I. Introduction

II. Discovery of Cherenkov radiation

III. Theory and properties of Cherenkov radiation

IV. Quenching and quench correction

V. Cherenkov counting parameters

VI. Cherenkov counting in the dry state

VII. Radionuclide analysis with silica aerogels

VIII. Cherenkov counting in microplate format

IX. Multiple radionuclide analysis

X. Radionuclide standardization

XI. Gamma ray detection and discrimination

XII. Particle identification

XIII. Neutrino detection and measurement

XIV. Applications in radionuclide analysis

XV. Advantages and disadvantages in radionuclide analysis

XVI. Recommendations in radionuclide analysis

Chapter 7. Radionuclide standardization

I. Introduction

II. Absolute direct methods

III. Solid angle primary methods

IV. Relative methods

V. Reference systems

VI. Preparation of radioactive samples

Chapter 8. Radioactivity counting statistics

I. Introduction

II. Statistical distributions

III. Analysis of a sample of results

IV. Statistical inference

V. Regression

VI. Detection limits

VII. Metrology applications

Chapter 9. High-resolution beta imaging

I. Introduction

II. Autoradiography principles

III. Energy-storage latent imaging

IV. Particle counting imaging systems

V. Comparative use of the different techniques

VI. Other applications

VII. Perspectives and future developments

VIII. Conclusions

Chapter 10. Flow-cell radionuclide analysis

I. Introduction

II. High-performance liquid chromatography flow-cell analyzers

III. Principles of flow scintillation counting

IV. Flow scintillator selection

V. Dual-functionality flow-cell detectors

VI. Flow-cell radionuclide analysis sequential to separation

VII. Stopped-flow detection

VIII. Flow-cell effluent water monitors

IX. Single radionuclide analysis in high-performance liquid chromatography

X. Dual radionuclide analysis

XI. Online HPLC-FSA and mass spectrometry

XII. Online FSA and nuclear magnetic resonance

XIII. Online HPLC-FSA-MS-NMR

Chapter 11. Automated radiochemical separation, analysis, and sensing

I. Introduction

II. Radiochemical separations

III. Automation of radiochemical analysis using flow injection or sequential injection fluidics

IV. Selected radiochemical analysis examples

V. Automation using robotics

VI. Automated monitors for industrial scale nuclear processes

VII. Radionuclide sensors and systems for water monitoring

VIII. Digital microfluidics for microscale single bead manipulations

IX. Radioisotopes in medicine

X. Discussion

Chapter 12. Analytical techniques in nuclear safeguards

I. Introduction

II. Photon-based assay for safeguards

III. Neutron-based assay for safeguards

IV. Calorimetric assay

Chapter 13. Nuclear forensics

I. Introduction

II. The origins of nuclear forensics

III. National objectives

IV. Nuclear attribution

V. Nuclear forensic interpretation

VI. Validated signatures

VII. Analytical results

VIII. Validated methods

IX. Quality assurance

X. Sampling

XI. Conclusions

Appendix A. Table of radioactive isotopes

Appendix B. Particle range-energy correlations

Index

Copyright

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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-814395-7

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Contributors

Nicole Barthe

Univ. Bordeaux, bioingénierie tissulaire, Bordeaux, France

INSERM, bioingénierie tissulaire, Bordeaux, France

Maria Betti

Directorate G - Nuclear Safety and Security, European Commission, DG Joint Research Centre, Karlsruhe, Germany

Formerly at the International Atomic Energy Agency, Environmental Laboratories, Monaco

Ana Cardona, (In Memoriam),     Institut Pasteur, Paris, France

Nicolas Carvou,     Biospace Lab UK, Warwick, United Kingdom

Xiongxin Dai,     China Institute for Radiation Protection, Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China

Oleg B. Egorov,     Medvio, LLC, West Richland, WA, United States

Konstantinos Eleftheriadis,     Environmental Radioactivity Laboratory, Institute of Nuclear and Radiological Science & Technology, Energy & Safety, N.C.S.R. Demokritos, Ag. Paraskevi, Attiki, Greece

Rudolf Engelbrecht

Radiochemistry, Seibersdorf Labor GmbH, Seibersdorf, Austria

Currently - Austrian Agency for Health and Food Security, GmbH, Vienna

Mats Eriksson

Swedish Radiation Safety Authority, Department of Radiation Protection, Stockholm, Sweden

Formerly at the International Atomic Energy Agency, Environmental Laboratories, Monaco

William Geist,     Los Alamos National Laboratory, Safeguards Science Technology Group, Los Alamos, NM, United States

Željko Grahek,     Laboratory for Radioecology, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia

Jay W. Grate,     Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States

Agustín Grau Carles,     Academia BIC, Madrid, Spain

Agustín Grau Malonda,     CIEMAT, Madrid, Spain

Xiaolin Hou

Technical University of Denmark, Department of Environmental Engineering, Roskilde, Denmark

Lanzhou University, School of Nuclear Science and Technology, Lanzhou, China

Philip Hypes,     Los Alamos National Laboratory, Hazardous Materials Management Group, Los Alamos, NM, United States

Alexandra Ioannidou,     Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Physics Department, Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Thessaloniki, Greece

Miroslav Ješkovský,     Comenius University, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Department of Nuclear Physics and Biophysics, Bratislava, Slovakia

Jakub Kaizer,     Comenius University, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Department of Nuclear Physics and Biophysics, Bratislava, Slovakia

Ivan Kontul',     Comenius University, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Department of Nuclear Physics and Biophysics, Bratislava, Slovakia

Michael J. Kristo,     Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, United States

Michael F. L'Annunziata,     The Montague Group, Oceanside, CA, United States

Galina Lujaniené,     SRI Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Vilnius, Lithuania

Serge Maîtrejean,     SMTJ Consulting, Paris, France

Monika Müllerová,     Comenius University, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Department of Nuclear Physics and Biophysics, Bratislava, Slovakia

Matthew J. O'Hara,     Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, United States

Pavel P. Povinec

Comenius University, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Informatics, Department of Nuclear Physics and Biophysics, Bratislava, Slovakia

Formerly at the International Atomic Energy Agency, Environmental Laboratories, Monaco

Peter Santi,     Los Alamos National Laboratory, Safeguards Science Technology Group, Los Alamos, NM, United States

Jan Scholten

Institute of Geosciences, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany

Formerly at the International Atomic Energy Agency, Environmental Laboratories, Monaco

Nataša Todorović,     University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Physics, Nuclear Physics Laboratory, Novi Sad, Serbia

About the Founding Editor

Michael F. L'Annunziata

Michael F. L'Annunziata, PhD, is the founding editor and coauthor of the Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis. He majored in chemistry with a BSc degree from St. Edward's University in 1965, and he was awarded MSc and PhD degrees from the University of Arizona, Tucson, in 1967 and 1970, respectively. His graduate thesis research in the 1960s, financed by the then US Atomic Energy Commission, dealt with the analysis of the radionuclides ⁸⁹Sr and ⁹⁰Sr and the remediation of soils contaminated with radiostrontium in the event of nuclear fallout, published as a thesis in 1967 (https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/318640). After a short stint in the chemical industry (Amchem Products, Inc, Ambler, Pennsylvania) during 1970–71 as ¹⁴C-tracer chemist, he joined the faculty at the Postgraduate College in Chapingo, Mexico, as a professor and thesis advisor during 1972–75, and during 1975–77, L'Annunziata was a senior research scientist at the Nuclear Center of the National Institute of Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico, where he served also as a thesis research advisor to graduate students of chemistry of the Autonomous University of the State of Mexico in Toluca, Mexico, in the field of radionuclide analysis and applications. During 1977–91, he was a scientific officer in the Departments of Research and Isotopes and Technical Cooperation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna, Austria, where he served as IAEA Head of Fellowships and Training during 1987–91. From 1977 to 2007, he served as IAEA Expert in fact-finding, planning, and implementation assignments in peaceful applications of nuclear energy for development in more than 50 countries of the world in Asia, Africa, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East. L'Annunziata was a member of the Board of Governors, International Science Programs at Uppsala University, between 1988 and 1991. His main research interests have been focused on the development of chemical and instrumental methods for the detection and measurement of radioactive nuclides as tracers in research. He was the first to postulate the soil microbial epimerization of myo-inositol to other inositol stereoisomers as a source of the stereoisomers of inositol phosphates in soils (PhD dissertation, 1970, https://dissexpress.proquest.com/dxweb/results.html?QryTxt=&By=L%27Annunziata&Title=&pubnum   =   ) and in 1975 (SSSA Journal 39(2), 377–379) and first to demonstrate in 1977, with the use of the radioisotope c

Foreword

Radioactive sources play a significant role in promoting human development and health worldwide. Whether through its application to treat cancer, diagnose various diseases, develop new crop varieties, sterilize medical supplies, or provide clean energy, peaceful uses of radioactive sources are ubiquitous in our daily lives. These wide-ranging applications can only be implemented appropriately when radioactivity is measured precisely. Thus, the accurate measurement of nuclear radiation is indispensable for the peaceful applications of radioactive materials. For example, in fields such as nuclear medicine, whether for the treatment or diagnosis of disease, accurate measurements of radionuclides are essential. Dosimetric measurements are the cornerstone of safe and effective radiation therapy for the treatment of cancer whether for brachytherapy, proton beam therapy, or other sources of radiation therapy.

With more than 170 Member States in all continents of the world, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) serves as the global focal point for nuclear cooperation. The Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis will serve Member States as one of many tools available in the application of nuclear science and technology for peaceful purposes. The importance of this guidance is demonstrated by the wide range of areas in which the IAEA supports Member States to contribute to their well-being and development. Such examples include biological sciences research, insect pest control, health, fertilizer and water use efficiency, water resources and the environment including marine science and climate change, radiation technology, neutron diffraction, radiography and activation analysis, radiation processing in industry, radiation protection, nuclear power, nuclear safeguards, radiation preparedness and response, and research in the field of nuclear fusion, among others.

The Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis is now in its fourth edition since the successful first edition in 1998. Over the past two decades, this book has expanded in its scope from an initial 12 chapters to the current 22 chapters, encompassing the numerous modern applications and methods of radiation detection and measurement. The chapters in this book are written by experts from 16 countries around the world. This new edition will continue to serve as an important resource in our search to optimize radioactivity measurements both in research and in its applications, leading to the peaceful utilization of radioactive sources for health and development.

May Abdel-Wahab, MD, PhD, FACR

Director, Division of Human Health

Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications

International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna

Preface to the fourth edition

In 1996, I proposed to Academic Press the idea of a book that would provide readers with a reference source to state-of-the-art radiation detectors and methods of analysis of radionuclides and other sources of nuclear radiation. Thus, the first edition of this book was published in 1998 as a single volume with only 12 chapters, and the book has expanded in scope and depth over the past two   decades with the current fourth edition and its 22 chapters in two volumes.

The numerous advances that have been made since the publication of the previous third edition warranted the partition of the Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis into two volumes. It was decided to separate the chapters into two categories, namely, Volume 1, Radiation Physics and Detectors and Volume 2, Radioanalytical Applications. The two volumes of this book were expanded greatly to provide material, which would serve as a valuable resource in teaching and a reference source to the researcher in his or her unique analytical requirements in the measurement of radioactive materials.

The first chapter in Volume 1, which was previously entitled Radiation Physics and Radionuclide Decay, was expanded to almost double in volume with a corresponding change in the chapter title to The Atomic Nucleus, Nuclear Radiation, and the Interaction of Radiation with Matter, which includes additional material helpful to supplement the academic curricula and aid in the decisions and calculations made by researchers in their measurement of nuclear radiation and radionuclide analysis. Current principles of operation of all classes of radiation detectors and their applications have been expanded and updated, including semiconductor detectors, gas ionization detectors, liquid and solid scintillation detectors, solid-state nuclear track detectors, Cherenkov detectors, calorimeters and bolometers, as well as advances in atom counting (i.e., mass spectrometry) for the measurement of radioactive and stable nuclides and radiation from other sources such as cosmic radiation, synchrotron radiation, and particle emissions from nuclear reactions.

In light of increased concern for radioactivity in the environment, a chapter was added on the Analysis of Environmental Radionuclides in Volume 2. Also, all chapters in Volume 2 have been expanded and updated with material required in the analysis of radionuclides and radiation in our land, air, and water resources, including the marine environment, as well as particle identification and measurement by Cherenkov counting, radiation counting statistics, radionuclide standardization, imaging techniques required in the applications of radionuclides in biological research and nuclear medicine, flow-cell analytical techniques, automation in radiochemical analysis together with analytical techniques required in the fields of nuclear safeguards and nuclear forensics.

Again, we have completed this book as an international effort by drawing upon the expertise of researchers and teachers from 16 countries of the world. Although coming from many branches of science, chapter authors all share one common objective, that being the most accurate measurement of radiation sources and radionuclides both natural and man-made, vital to all branches of science and human development. Readers interested in radiation physics, the applications of radionuclides and radiation sources, and how these have been vital to our well-being and development may refer to another text by the writer entitled "Radioactivity: Introduction and History, From the Quantum to Quarks" (ISBN: 978-0-444-63489-4), published in 2016 by Elsevier (https://www.elsevier.com/books/radioactivity/lannunziata/978-0-444-63489-4).

Women are the senior authors of three chapters in this new edition, which is evidence of the increasing role of women as leaders in this field of science. We may expect to see yet in the future an ever-increasing number of women, who will make great advances in this field of science following the pioneering examples of Marie Curie, Lise Meitner, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Rosalind Franklin, Marietta Blau, and Chien-Shiung Wu, among others.

Mention of commercial products in this book does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the chapter authors or editor. Other or more suitable products may be available. Names of products are included for convenience or information purposes only.

I would like to thank the authors of each chapter, who have covered their fields of expertise with an unwavering commitment to meet the objectives of this book. Acknowledgment is extended to Kathryn Eryilmaz (nee Morrissey), Aquisition Editor, at Elsevier in Cambridge for approaching me with the suggestion that we consider a fourth edition and for working with me during the planning stage of this book. Many thanks go to Hilary Carr, Elsevier Editorial Project Manager, for her constant support and advice throughout the writing and production of this book. I thank also Ashwathi P. Aravindakshan of Elsevier for her assistance in completing the legal requirements for the publication of this book. Appreciation is also extended to Prem Kumar Kaliamoorthi, Elsevier Production Project Manager, for his meticulous attention to every detail throughout the production process of this book. Thanks are also extended to Susan Dennis, Publisher of Elsevier Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Books, and Mona Zahir, Elsevier Editorial Project Manager, for their guidance and support during this project. Above all, I thank my wife Maria del Carmen (aka Reyna) for her understanding, encouragement, and unflagging patience.

Michael F. L'Annunziata, PhD

Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Symbols

A    Mass number

A    Ampere (1 A   =   1   C/s), amplifier

a    Year(s)

Å    Angstrom (10 −¹⁰   m   =   0.1   nm)

AABW    Antarctic Bottom Water

AAIW    Antarctic Intermediate Water

AAS    Atomic absorption spectrometry

AASI    Advanced alpha-spectrometric simulation

ATTA    Atom trap trace analysis

ABACC    Brazilian–Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials

ABEC    aqueous biphasic extraction chromatography

AC    Alternating current

ACC    Antarctic Circumpolar Current

ACFM    Actual cubic feet per minute (28.3   L/min.)

ADC    Analog-to-digital converter

ADF    Advanced digital filter

ADME    Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion

ADS    Accelerator-driven subcritical reactor

AEC    Automatic efficiency compensation, Atomic Energy Commission

AES    Atomic emission spectrometry, Auger electron spectroscopy

AF    Agulhas Front

AFM    Atomic force microscope

AFS    Atomic fluorescence spectrometry

α    Alpha particle, internal conversion coefficient

∝    Proportional to

ag    Attogram   =   10 −¹⁸   g

AGeV    GeV per nucleon

AkeV    keV per nucleon

A2LA    American Association for Laboratory Accreditation

AM    β-artemether, arithmetic mean

AMAD    Activity median aerodynamic diameter

AMANDA    Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector Array, South Pole

AMANDE    Accelerator for Metrology and Neutron Applications in External Dosimetry, IRSN, France

AMAP    Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme

AMeV    MeV per nucleon

AMP    Adenosine monophosphate, ammonium molybdophosphate, amplifier

amp.    Amplifier

AMS    Accelerator mass spectrometry

amu    Atomic mass units

ANDA    7-Amino-1,3-naphthalenedisulfonic acid

ANFESH    Ferric potassium hexacyanoferrate on a cellulose carrier

ANITA    ANtarctic Impulsive Transient Antenna

ANL    Argonne National Laboratory

ANN    Artificial neural network

ANSI    American National Standards Institute

ANSTO    Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation

ANTARES    ANTArctic RESearch, Astronomy with a Neutrino Telescope and Abyss Environmental RESearch, Mediterranean Sea

ANZECC    Australian and New Zealand Environment Conservation Council

APCI    Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization

APD    Avalanche photodiode

APDC    Ammonium pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate

APE    Alkyl phenol ethoxylate

APMP    Asia–Pacific Metrology Program

APS    Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory

AQC    Automatic quench compensation

AQCS    Analytical Quality Control Services (of IAEA)

AQP(I)    Asymmetric quench parameter of the isotope

ARC    Agulhas Return Current

ARMCANZ    Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand

AS    Alpha spectrometry

ASTAR    Alpha stopping power and range

ASTM    American Society for Testing and Materials

atm    Atmosphere (standard)   =   1.01325   ×   10⁵   Pa

at %    Atom percent

ATP    Adenosine triphosphate

ATSDR    Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

AUV    Autonomous underwater vehicle

AWCC    Active Well Coincidence Counter

AWE    United Kingdom Atomic Weapons Establishment

β    Particle relative phase velocity, beta particle

ββ    Double-beta decay

β −    Negatron, negative beta particle

β +    Positron, positive beta particle

b    Barn   =   10 −²⁸   m²   =   10 −²⁴   cm²

BAC    N,N′-bisacrylylcystamine

bar    10⁵   N/m²   =   100   ×   10³   Pa

BBD    2,5-Di-(4-biphenylyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole

BBO    2,5-Di(4-biphenylyl)oxazole

BBOT    2,5-Bis-2-(5-t-butyl-benzoxazolyl) thiophene

BCC    Burst counting circuitry, Bragg curve counter

BDs    Bubble detectors

BDE    Bond dissociation energy

BE    Binding energy

BEAGLE    Blue Ocean Global Expedition

BEGe    Broad-energy germanium detector

BGO    Bismuth germanate (Bi4Ge3O12)

BIPM    Bureau international des poids et mesures, Sèvres, France

bis-MSB    p-Bis-(o-methylstyryl)benzene

B K    K-shell electron binding energy

bkg, BKG    Background

BNCT    boron neutron capture therapy

BNL    Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York

BOD    Biological oxygen demand

BOMARC    Boeing Michigan Aeronautical Research Center

BOREXINO    BOron EXperiment, solar neutrino detector, Italy

Bq    Becquerel   =   1 dps

BQM    Bqmeter (Consortium BQM, Czech Republic)

BR    Branching ratio

BS    Backscatter

BSA    Bovine serum albumin

BSI    The British Standards Institute

BSO    Bismuth silicate (Bi4Si3O12)

BSS    Bonner sphere spectrometer, Board of Safety Standards

BT    Bound tritium

BTP    Bistriazinylpyridine

butyl-PBD    2-(4-t-Butylphenyl)-5-(4-biphenylyl)1,3,4-oxadiazole

BWR    Boiling water reactor

c    Speed of light in vacuum (2.9979   ×   10⁸   m/s)

C    Coulomb (1   C   =   1 A   s)

ºC    Degrees Celsius

CAI    Calcium–aluminum-rich inclusions

CaF2(Eu)    Europium-activated calcium fluoride

CALEX    Calorimetry Exchange Program

CAM    Continuous air monitoring

CAMAC    Computer-automated measurement and control

CANDLES    CAlcium fluoride for the study of Neutrinos and Dark matter by Low Energy Spectrometer

CANDU    Canadian deuterium uranium reactor

CART    Classification and regression tree algorithm

CAVE    Counting lAboratory for enVironmental radionuclidEs, Monaco

CC    Charged current (interaction), charge comparison, carbonate carbon

CCD    Charge-coupled device

CCRI    Consultative Committee for Ionizing Radiation

CD ROM    Compact disc read-only memory

CDW    Circumpolar Deep Water

CE    Chemical etching, capillary electrophoresis

CEA    Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique

CEFAS    Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (UK)

CE-ICP-MS    Capillary electrophoresis–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

CELLAR    Collaboration of European Low-level Underground Laboratories

CENTA    Centre for Nuclear and Accelerator Technologies, Bratislava

CERN    European Organization for Nuclear Research, Geneva

CET    Compton efficiency tracing method

CF    Feedback capacitor

CF    Calibration factor, correction factor

CFD    Constant fraction discriminator

cfm    Cubic feet per minute

CFN    Cross-flow nebulizer

CGE    Chamber Gram Estimator

Ch    Channel

CHEREN2    Anisotropy detection model for Cherenkov counting efficiency

CHU    Centre hospitalier universitaire

Ci    Curie   =   2.22   ×   10¹² dpm   =   3.7   ×   10¹⁰ dps   =   37 GBq

CIAE    China Institute of Atomic Energy

CICM    Conventional integral counting method

CID    Collision-induced dissociation

CIEMAT    Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Technológicas, Madrid

CIRIA    Construction Industry Research and Information Association

cm    Centimeter

cm/d    Unit of flux from cm³/cm² per day

CMB    Cosmic microwave background

CMOS    Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor

CMPO    Octyl(phenyl)-N,N-di-isobutylcarbamoylmethylphosphine oxide

CMX-4    Collaborative Materials Exercise (fourth by the ITWG)

C/N    CIEMAT/NIST (efficiency tracing method)

CN    Cellulose nitrate

CN∗    Unstable compound nucleus

CNC    Condensation nuclei counter

CNET    CIEMAT/NIST efficiency tracing

CNRS    Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, France

CNS    Central nervous system

COG    Center of gravity

COMPASS    Community Pentascale Project for Accelerator Science and Simulation

COTS    Commercial off-the-shelf (system)

cph, CPH    Counts per hour

cpm, CPM    Counts per minute, channel photomultiplier

cps, CPS    Counts per second

CR-39    Polyallyldiglycol carbonate plastic SSNTD

CRESST    Cryogenic Rare Event Search with Superconducting Thermometers

CRL    Compound refractive lens

CRM    Certified reference material

CS    Calibration source

CSDA    Continuous Slowing Down Approximation range

CSIC    Instituto de Física Fundamental, Madrid

CsI(Na)    Sodium-activated cesium iodide

CsI(Tl)    Thallium-activated cesium iodide

CT    Computerized tomography

CTBT    Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

CTBTO    Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization

CTD    Conductivity/temperature/density detector

CTF    Contrast transfer function

CTFE    Chlorotrifluoroethylene

CTR    Controlled thermonuclear reactor

cts    Counts

CV    Core valence

cv    Column volume

CWOSL    Continuous wave optically stimulated luminescence

CZT    Cadmium zinc telluride (semiconductor detectors)

D    Deuterium

d    Days, deuteron, down quark

   Antidown quark

2D    Two-dimensional

DA    Destructive analysis

Da    Dalton (unified atomic mass unit, also abbreviated as u)

DAC    Derived air concentration

DAP    Diallyl phthalate

DASE    Le Département analyse, surveillance, environnement, France

DATDA    Diallyltartardiamide

DBD    Double-beta decay

DC    Direct current

DCC    Digital coincidence counting

dc-GDMS    Direct current–glow discharge mass spectrometry

DDCP    Dibutyl-N,N-diethylcarbamylphosphonate

DDTC    Diethyldithiocarbamate

DE    Double escape

DEF    Delayed ettringite formation

δ    Delta rays

DEMO    Demonstration Power Plant (fusion)

DESR    Double external standard relation

DESY    Deutsches Elektronen Synchrotron

Det.    Detector

DF    Decontamination factor

DF-ICP-MS    Double focusing ICP-MS

DGA    Diglycolamide

DIC    Dissolved inorganic carbon

DIHEN    Direct injection high-efficiency nebulizer

DIM    Data interpretation module

dimethyl POPOP    1,4-Bis-2-(4-methyl-5-phenyloxazolyl)benzene

DiMF    Decay in a magnetic field (method)

DIN    Diisopropylnaphthalene

DIPE    Diisopropyl ether

DIPEX    Bis(2-ethylhexyl)methane-diphosphonic acid

DIRC    Detector of internally reflected Cherenkov light

DJD    Diffused junction detector

DLU    Digital light units

DMCA    Digital multichannel analyzer

DMF    Digital microfluidics

DMG    Dimethylglyoxime

DMM    Direct matrices multiplication

DMSO    Dimethyl sulfoxide

DNA    Deoxyribonucleic acid

D2O    Heavy water

DOC    Dissolved organic carbon

DOE    US Department of Energy

DOELAP    Department of Energy Laboratory Accreditation Program

DOM    Digital optical module

DOP    Dioctyl phthalate

DOT    Digital overlay technique

dpm, DPM    Disintegrations per minute

dps, DPS    Disintegrations per second

DPSD    Digital pulse shape discrimination

dpy, DPY    Disintegrations per year

DQP    Double quench parameter

DRAM    Dynamic random access memory

DSA    Defined solid angle

DSES    Deep sea echo sounder

DSP    Digital signal processing

DT    Dead time

DTPA    Diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid

DTSA    Desktop spectrum analyzer (software)

DU    Depleted uranium

DWL    Drinking water limit

DWPF    Defense waste processing facility

E    Counting efficiency, energy

E b    Binding energy

e+    Positron

e −    Electron, negatron

e − h+ or e−h    Electron−hole pair

EBq    Exabecquerel (10¹⁸ Bq)

EC    Electron capture, extraction chromatography, European Community, elemental carbon

ECD    Effective cutoff diameter

ECDL    Extended cavity diode laser

ECE    Electrochemical etching

ECR    Electron cyclotron resonance

ED    Exponential decrease

EDS    Energy dispersive spectrometer

EDTA    Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid

EDX    Energy dispersive X-ray (spectrometer)

EDXRF    Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence

EESI-MS    Extractive electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry

EeV    Exaelectron volts (10¹⁸   eV)

EF    Fermi level

EF    Enrichment factor

Eh    Oxidation potential

EI    Electron impact (e.g., in mass spectrometry)

EIA    Enzyme immunoassay

EM    Electromagnetic

EMA    Extramural absorber

EMCCD    Electron multiplier CCD

EML    Environmental Measurement Laboratory, USA

EMPA    Electron microprobe analysis

ENEA    Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development

ENSDF    Evaluated Nuclear Structure Data File

EO    Ethylene oxide

EPA    US Environmental Protection Agency

EPCRA    Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act

EPR    Electron paramagnetic resonance

ERBSS    Extended-range Bonner sphere spectrometer

erg    Energy unit (1   erg   =   6.2415   ×   10¹¹   eV   =   10 −⁷   J)

ES    Elastic scattering, external standard

ESA    European Space Agency, Paris; electrostatic analyzer

ESCR    External standard channels ratio

ESI    Electrospray ionization

ESIR WG    Extended SIR Working Group

ESP    External standard pulse

ESTAR    Electron stopping power and range

esu    Electrostatic unit

ET    Efficiency tracing

ET-DPM    Efficiency tracing disintegrations per minute (method)

ETH    Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Zurich

ETV-ICP-MS    Electrothermal vaporization–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

E av    Average energy (beta particle)

E max    Maximum energy (beta particle), Compton electron energy maximum

E α    Alpha-particle energy

E p    Proton energy

E th    Threshold energy

EU    European Union

EUChemS    European Chemical Society

EURACHEM    European organization for traceability of chemical measurements

EURADOS    European Radiation Dosimetry Group

EURATOM    European Atomic Energy Community

EUROMET    European Collaboration in Measurement Standards

eV    Electron volt   =   1.602176   ×   10 −¹⁹   J   =   1.602176   ×   10 −¹²   erg)

EXAFS    X-ray absorption fine structure

ºF    Degrees Fahrenheit

FADC    Fast analog digital converter

fC    Fraction of contemporary cabon

FDA    US Food and Drug Administration

FDG    Fluorodeoxyglucose

FDNPP    Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant, Japan

FDNPS    Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Station, Japan

FEP    Full energy peak

FET    Field effect transistor

FFF    Field flow fractionation

fg    Femtogram (10 −¹⁵   g)

FGRM    Flow-through gaseous radiochemical method

FI    Flow injection

fm    Fermi or femtometer (10 −¹⁵   m)

fM    Fraction of modern carbon

fmol    Femtomole (10 −¹⁵   mol)

FNTD    Fluorescent nuclear track detector

FOM    Figure of merit

fov    Field of view

fp    Fission products

FPGA    Field programmable gate array

FSA    Flow scintillation analysis

FS-DPM    Full-spectrum disintegrations per minute (method)

FT    Fission track

FTD    Fission track dating

FT-ICR    Fourier transform–ion cyclotron resonance

FTIR    Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

FWHM    Full width at half-maximum

FWT    Free water tritium

FWTM    Full width at 10th maximum

g    Gram, gluon

G #    G-number (Grau's-number, quench-indicating parameter)

γ    Gamma radiation

G-8    Group of Eight Countries (IAEA Member States)

GBq    Gigabecquerels (10⁹ Bq)

GC    Gas chromatography

GC/MS    Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

GCR    Galactic cosmic rays

GD    Glow discharge

GDMS    Glow discharge mass spectrometry

GEANT    Geometry ANd Tracking Monte Carlo code

Ge(Li)    Lithium-compensated germanium

GEM    Gas electron multiplier

GEOSECS    Geochemical Ocean Sections Programme

GEOTRACES    International Study on Marine Biogeochemical Cycling of Trace Elements and their Isotopes

GERDA    GERmanium Detector Array

GeV    Gigaelectron volts (10⁹   eV)

GHz    Gigahertz (10⁹   Hz)

GICNT    Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism

GIS    Geographical Information System

GISP    Greenland Ice Sheet Projects

GLOMARD    Global Marine Radioactivity Database

GLP    Good laboratory practice

GM    Geiger–Müller

GM-APD    Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode

GPa    Gigapascal

GPC    Gas proportional counting (counter)

GPD    Geometric progression decrease

CPG    Coplanar grid

GPS    Global positioning system

GRB    Gamma ray burst

GS-20    Glass scintillator

GSD    Geometric standard deviation

GSI    Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung mbH, Darmstadt, Germany

GSO:Ce    Cerium-activated gadolinium orthosilicate (Gd2SiO5:Ce)

GUM    Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement

GW    Groundwater, gate width

GWe    Gigawatt electrical (10⁹ We)

Gy    Gray (1   Gy   =   1   J/kg   =   6.24   ×   10¹²   MeV/kg)

GZK    Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuz'min process of proton-photon interactions

h    Hours

h    Plank's constant (6.626   ×   10 −³⁴   J   s), hours

ħ    Plank's constant reduced (h/2π)

H #    Horrock's number (quench indicating parameter)

HBT    2-(2-Hydroxyphenyl)-benzothiazole

HDE    Heat distribution error

HDEHP    Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phosphoric acid

HDPE    High-density polyethylene (moderator)

HEDPA    1-Hydroxyethane-1,1-diphosphonic acid

HEN    High efficiency nebulizer

HEP    High-energy particle

HEPES    N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N′-2-ethanesulfonic acid

HERA-B RICH    Particle detector of the Hadron-Elektron-Ringanlage, Hamburg, Germany

HERM    High-energy radio monitor

HEU    Highly enriched uranium

HEX-ICP-MS    Hexapole collision cell ICP-MS

HEX-ICP-QMS    Hexapole collision cell quadrupole mass spectrometry

3HF    3-Hydroxy flavone

hg    Hectograms (10²   g)

h-index    Hirsh index

HIBA    Hydroxy-i-butyric acid

HKG    Housekeeping gene

HLNC    High-level neutron coincidence counter

HLW    High-level waste

HPB    High-pressure Bridgman

HPGe    High-purity germanium

HPIC    High-performance ionic chromatography

HPLC    High-performance liquid chromatography

HPMT    Hybrid photomultiplier tube

HRAS    High-resolution alpha spectrometry

HRGS    High-resolution gamma spectrometry

HR-ICP-MS    High-resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

HT    High tension

HV    High voltage

HWHM    Half width at half-maximum

HWZPR    Heavy water zero power reactor

Hz    Hertz (cycles per second)

iin    Current pulse

IAEA    International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna

IAEA-EL    IAEA Marine Environment Laboratory, Monaco

IC    Internal conversion, ion chromatography

ICC    Ice condenser chamber

IC-ICP-MS    Ion chromatography–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

IC#    Isotope center number

IceCube    Neutrino Observatory, South Pole

IceTop    Surface array of stations for IceCube

ICF    Inertial confinement fusion

ICP    Inductively coupled plasma

ICP-CC-QMS    Quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry with hexapole collision cell

ICP-FT-ICR-MS    Inductively coupled plasma Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry

ICP-MS    Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

ICP-OES    Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (spectra)

ICP-QMS    Inductively coupled plasma quadrupole mass spectrometry

ICP-SFMS    Double-focusing sector field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

ICRP    International Commission on Radiological Protection

ICRU    International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements

ID or i.d.    Inner diameter, inner detector

IDA    Isotope dilution analysis

IDMS    Isotope dilution mass spectrometry

ID-TIMS    Isotope dilution thermal ionization mass spectrometry

IE    Ion exchange

IEC    International Electrotechnical Commission, inertial electrostatic confinement

IECF    Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion

IEEE    Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IEF    Isoelectric focusing gel electrophoresis

IFIN-HH    Horia Hulubei National Institute of Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Romania

IGPC    Internal gas proportional counting

IL-5    Interleukin-5

IMS    International Monitoring System of the CTBT

in.    Inch   =   2.54   cm   =   25.4   mm

INES    International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale

INFN    Instituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (Italy)

INGE    International Noble Gas Experiment

INP    Institute of Nuclear Physics, Tirana, Albania

IN2P3    Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules, France

INSERM    Institut national de la santé et de la recherché médicale. France

I/O    Input/output

IPA    Instrument performance assessment, isopropyl alcohol

IPRI    Laboratoire Primaire des Rayonnements Ionisants, France

IPT    Intramolecular proton transfer

IR    Infrared (spectroscopy)

IRA    Institut Universitaire de Radiophysique, Lausanne, Switzerland

IRMM    Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, Geel

IRMS    Isotope ratio mass spectrometry

IRSN    Institute of Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety, France

IS    Internal standard

ISH    In situ hybridization

ISO    International Organization for Standardization

ISOCS    In-Situ object calibration software

IS-SCR    Internal standard and sample channels ratio

IT    Isomeric or internal transition

ITER    International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor

ITU    Institute for Transuranium Elements, Europe

ITWG    Nuclear Forensics International Technical Working Group

IUPAC    International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

IUPAP    International Union of Pure and Applied Physics

J    Joule   =   1   N   m   =   1   kg   m²/s²   =   1   W   s

JAERI    Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute

JET    Joint European Torus reactor

JFET    Junction field effect transistor

JCGM    Joint Committee for Guidelines in Metrology

JINR    Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, Moscow Oblast

JRC    Joint Research Centre (of European Commission)

K    particle kinetic energy

K +, K − , K ⁰    Kaons or K mesons

K    Degrees Kelvin

ka    Kiloannum (10³ years)

KamLAND    Kamioka Liquid Scintillator Anti-Neutrino Detector, Japan

KATRIN    Karlsruhe TRItium Neutrino experiment

kBq    Kilobecquerels (10³ Bq)

KCFC    Potassium cobalt ferrocyanide

kcps    Kilocounts per second

KCRV    Key comparison reference value

KEK    The High Energy Accelerator Research Organization, Japan

keV    Kiloelectron volts (10³   eV)

kg    Kilograms

kGy    Kilogray

kHz    Kilohertz

km.w.e    km-water-equivalent

KNN    k nearest neighbor algorithm

KRISS    National Metrology Institute of Korea

KSTAR    Korea Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research fusion reactor

kt    Kilotons

kV    Kilovolts (10³   V)

kW    Kilowatts (10³   W)

ky    Kiloyears (10³   y)

L, l    Liters

LA    Linear anode

LAAPD    Large area avalanche photodiode

LAB    Linear alkyl benzene, dodecylbenzene

LA-ICP-MS    Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

LA-MC-ICP-MS    Laser ablation multiple collector ICP-MS

λ    Wavelength, decay constant, microliter (10 −⁶   L), free parameter

λnr    Nonrelativistic wavelength

λr    Relativistic wavelength

LAMMA    Laser microprobe mass analysis

LAN    Local area network

LANL    Los Alamos National Laboratory

LAr    Liquid argon

LARA    laser-assisted isotope ratio analysis

LAW    Low-activity waste

LBD    Ligand-binding domain

LBNL    Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

LC    Liquid chromatography

LCDW    Lower circumpolar deep water

LCMS    Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry

LD50    Median lethal dose

LED    Light-emitting diode

LEGE    Low-energy germanium detector

LENA    Low-energy neutrino astrophysics detector

LET    Linear energy transfer

LEU    Low enriched uranium

LHCb RICH    Large Hadron Collider beauty experiment detector at CERN

LHD    Large Hadron Collider

LiI(Eu)    Europium-activated lithium iodide

LIMS    Laboratory Information Management System

LINAC or linac    Linear accelerator

LIST    Laser ion source trap

LL    Lower level

LL-BSS    Large ⁶LiI(Eu) Bonner sphere spectrometer

LLC    Liquid (mobile)–liquid (on solid phase) chromatography

LLCM    Low-level count mode

LLD    Lower limit of detection, lower level discriminator

LLE    Liquid–liquid extraction

LLNL    Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

LLR    Long-lived radionuclide

LMD    Laser microdissection

LM-OSL    Linear modulation optically stimulated luminescence

LN2    Liquid nitrogen

LNE    Laboratoire National de Métrologie et de E'ssais, France

LNGS    Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso, Italy

LNHB    Laboratoire National Henri Becquerel, Saclay

LNMRI    National Metrology Laboratory of Ionizing Radiation, Brazil

LOD    Limit of detection

LOV    lab-on-valve (system)

lp    Line pairs

LPB    Low-pressure Bridgman

LPI    low-pressure cascade impactor

LPRI    Laboratoire Primaire des Ionizants, Paris

LPS    Lipopolysaccharide

LRAD    Long-range alpha detector

LS    Liquid scintillation, liquid scintillator, linear-to-square curve

LSA    Liquid scintillation analysis (analyzer)

LSC    Liquid scintillation counting (counter)

LSO    Cerium-activated lutetium oxyorthosilicate (Ce:Lu2SiO5)

LSS    Liquid scintillation spectrometer

LTC    Live-time correction

LuAP    Cerium-activated lutetium aluminum perovskite (Ce:LuAlO3)

LY    Light yield

LXe    Liquid xenon

M    Molar (solution concentration)

m    Particle mass

m 0    Particle rest mass

m r    Speed-dependent particle mass

m    Mass, meters, minutes

mA    Milliampere (10 −³ ampere)

Ma    Megayear (10⁶ years)

mAbs    Monoclonal antibodies

MACS    Magnetically assisted chemical separations

MALDI    Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization

MAPD    Micropixel avalanche photodiode

MAPMT    Multianode photomultiplier tube

MARG    Microautoradiography

MARIS    Marine information system

MARSSIM    Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual

MATLAB    MATrix LABoratory (numerical computing and programming language)

mb    Millibarn (10 −³   b)

mBq    Millibecquerels (10 −³ Bq)

MBq    Megabecquerels (10⁶ Bq)

mCi    Millicurie (10 −³   Ci)   =   2.22   ×   10⁹ dpm   =   3.7   ×   10⁷ dps   =   37 MBq

MC    Multiple ion counting

MCA    Multichannel analyzer

MCF    Moving curve fitting

MC-ICP-MS    Multiple ion collector-ICP-MS

MCN    Microconcentric nebulizer

MCNP    Monte Carlo N-Particle code

MCNP-CP    Monte Carlo N-Particle-Correlated Particle code

MCP    Microchannel plate

MCP-PM    Microchannel plate photomultiplier

MC-TIMS    Multiple collector thermal ionization mass spectrometry

MD    Molecular dynamics

MDA    Minimal detectable activity

MDOA    Methyldiooctylamine

METAS    Federal Institute of Metrology, Berne-Wabern, Switzerland

METEPC    Multielement tissue-equivalent proportional counter

MeV    Megaelectron volts

MeVee    Electron equivalent energy

MHSP    Microhole and strip plate (imager)

MHz    Megahertz (10⁶   Hz)

MIBK    Methyl isobutyl ketone

MICAD    Microchannel Array Detector

MICM    Modified integral counting method

MICROMEGAS    Micromesh gas detector

mg    Milligram (10 −³   g)

mGy    Milligray

MIBK    Methyl isobutyl ketone

min    Minutes

mK    MilliKelvin (10 −³   K)

mL, ml    Milliliter (10 −³   L)

MLR    Multiple linear regression

mM    Millimolar (10 −³   M)

mm    Millimeter (10 −³   m)

MM    Magnetic monopoles

MMAD    Mass median aerodynamic diameter

MMC    Metallic magnetic calorimeter

mmol    Millimole (10 −³   mol)

MNP    Magnetic nanoparticle

mol    Mole (gram-molecular weight)

MΩ    Megaohm (10⁶   Ω)

MOX    Mixed oxide fuel

MP    Multipurpose

M-P    Mandel and Paule mean

MPa    Megapascal (10⁶   Pa)

MPGD    Micropattern gas detector

MPPC    Multipixel photon counter

mrad    Millirad (1   mrad   =   10   μGy)

MRI    Magnetic resonance imaging

mRNA    Messenger RNA

MS    Mass spectrometry

ms, msec    Milliseconds (10 −³   s)

MSAP    Microscale sample automation platform

MSB    Methylstyrylbenzene

MSC    Microplate scintillation counting

MSD    Mean standard deviation

MSE    Multisite events

MSGC    Microstrip gas counter

MSI    Mass spectrometry imaging

MS/MS    Tandem mass spectrometry

mSv    Millisievert

MW    Megawatt (10⁶   W)

Mt    Megaton (10⁶   t)

MTO    Magnetooptical trap

μ +, μ −    Muons

μ    Attenuation coefficient

μA    Microampere (10 −⁶   A)

μCi    Microcurie (10 −⁶   Ci)   =   2.22   ×   10⁶ dpm   =   3.7   ×   10⁴ dps   =   37 kBq

μg    Microgram (10 −⁶   g)

μL    Microliter (10 −⁶   L)

μm    Micrometer (10 −⁶   m)

μPIC    Micropixel gas chamber

μs, μsec    Microseconds (10 −⁶   s)

μ-XANES    Microfocused X-ray absorption near edge structure

μ-XRF    Microfocused X-ray fluorescence

MEK    Methyl ethyl ketone

MW    Megawatt (10⁶   W)

MWe    Megawatt electrical

m.w.e.    Meter water equivalent

MWPC    Multiwire proportional chamber

MV    Megavolts (10⁶   V)

MVC    Multivariate calibration

N    Newton   =   1   kg   m/s²

N    Neutron number

n    Neutron

n    Index of refraction

NA    Avogadro's constant (6.022   ×   10²³/mol)

nA    Nanoampere (10 −⁹ A)

NAA    Neutron activation analysis

NAC    N-acetylcystein

NADW    North Atlantic Deep Water

NaI(Tl)    Thallium-activated sodium iodide

NARC    Neutrino Array Radio Calibration

NASA    National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C.

NBL    New Brunswick Laboratory of the US DOE

NBR    Natural background rejection

NBS    National Bureau of Standards (now NIST)

NC    Neutral current (interaction)

NCD    Neutral current detector

nCi    Nanocurie (10 −⁹   Ci)

NCM    Normal count mode

NCRP    National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

NDA    Nondestructive analysis

NEA    Nuclear Energy Agency of the OECD

Ne/h    Number of electron−hole pairs

NEMO    Nautic Environment Marine Observatoire

NE-OBT    Nonexchangeable organically bound tritium

NF-LA-ICP-MS    Near-field laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

ng    Nanograms (10 −⁹   g)

NHMRC    National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia

NIDW    North Indian Deep Water

NIM    Nuclear instrument module

NIMH    Nickel metal hydride

NIST    National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg

nm    Nanometer (10 −⁹   m)

NMI    National Metrology Institute

NMM    Neutron moisture meter

NMR    Nuclear magnetic resonance

NNDC    National Nuclear Data Center

NOI    Nuclide of interest

NORM    Naturally occurring radioactive materials

NP    Nanoparticle

NPD    2-(1-Naphthyl)-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole

NPE    Nonyl phenol ethoxylate

NPL    National Physical Laboratory, UK

NPO    2-(1-Naphthyl)-5-phenyloxazole

NPP    Nuclear power plant

NRC    United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission

   Neutrino, photon frequency, particle velocity

   Antineutrino

0νββ    Neutrinoless double-beta decay

2νββ    Two-neutrino double-beta decay

nM    Nanomolar (10 −⁹   M)

nm    Nanometer (10 −⁹   m)

NMM    Neutron moisture meter

NMR    Nuclear magnetic resonance

NNDC    National Nuclear Data Center, BNL, Upton, New York

NNFL    National nuclear forensics library

NORM    Naturally occurring radioactive material

NPT    Nonproliferation Treaty

NRC    Nuclear Regulatory Commission

ns, nsec    Nanosecond (10 −⁹   s)

NSTAR    Neutron sandwich transmitter/activation-γ radiator

NT200    Neutrino telescope, Lake Baikal, Siberia

NTD-Ge    Neutron transmutation-doped Ge

N-TIMS    Negative ion thermal ionization mass spectrometry

NTP    Normal temperature and pressure

NTS    Nevada test site

NU    Natural uranium

NUDAT    Nuclear Database of the NNDC

NWT    Nuclear weapons test

N/Z    Neutron/proton ratio

OC    Organic carbon

OD or o.d.    Outer detector, outer diameter

OECD    Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OES    Optical emission spectrometry

OFHC    Oxygen-free high thermal conductivity

OGE    Optogalvanic effect

OHM    National Office of Measurement, Budapest

OLLSC    Online liquid scintillation counting

OM    Optical module

OSL    Optically stimulated luminescence

OTPC    Optical time projection chamber

P    Parity quantum number

p    Particle momentum

p, p+    Proton

Pa    Pascal   =   1   N/m²   =   1   kg/m⋅s²

PAC    Pulse amplitude comparison (comparator)

PADC    Polyallyldiglycol carbonate

PAGE    Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis

PAN    Polyacrylonitrile

PANDA    Particles and nondestructive analysis

PAW    Physics Analysis Workstation

PAZ    Partial annealing zone

PBBO    2-(4′-Biphenylyl)-6-phenylbenzoxazole

PBD    2-Phenyl-5-(4-biphenylyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole

PBO    2-(4-Biphenylyl)-5-phenyloxazole

PBq    Petabecquerel (10¹⁵ Bq)

PBS    Phosphate buffered saline

PC    Proportional counter(ing), personal computer, paper chromatogram, polycarbonate

PCA    Principal component analysis

PCB    Polychlorinated biphenyl

pCi    Picocurie (10 −¹²   Ci)

PCR    Principle component regression

PD    Photodiode

PDA    Pulse decay analysis

PDB    Pee Dee Belemnite (standard)

PDD    Pulse decay discriminator

PE    Phosphate ester, polyethylene

PEC    Power and event controller

PENELOPE    PENetration and Energy Loss of Positrons and Electrons Monte Carlo code

PERALS    Photon Electron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation

PET    Positron emission tomography, polyethylene terephthalate

PETAC    Pentaerythritol tetrakis allyl carbonate

PeV    Petaelectron volts (10¹⁵   eV)

pF    Picofarad (10 −¹²   F)

PF    Polar front

PFA    Perfluoroalkoxy

PFZ    Polar frontal zone

pg    Picogram (10 −¹²   g)

PGA    Pulse gradient analysis

ph    Photons

PHA    Pulse height analysis

PHITS    Particle and heavy ion transport code system

PHOSWICH    PHOSphor sandWICH (detector)

π    Pi constant   =   3.14159

π+, π − , π⁰    Pions or pi mesons

PI    Polyimide, pressurized injection

PID    Particle identification

PIM    Parallel ionization multiplier

PIMS    Positive-ion mass spectrometry

PIPS, PIPSi    Passivated implanted planar silicon

PIXE    Proton-induced X-ray emission

PKC    Protein kinase C

PLC    Proportional long counter

PLI    Pulse length index

PLS    Partial least squares

PLS-DA    Partial least squares discriminant analysis

PLSR    Partial least squares regression

PM    Photomultiplier, particulate matter

PMM    Power-moderated weighted mean

PMBP    1-Phenyl-3-methyl-4-benzoylpyrazolone-5

pMC    Percent modern carbon

PMMA    Polymethylmethacrylate

PMP    1-Phenyl-3-mesityl-2-pyrazoline

PMT    Photomultiplier tube

PN    Pneumatic nebulizers

PNNL    Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

PNX    Pacific Northwest eXtraction system

POM    Polyoxymethylene

POPOP    1,4-Bis-2-(5-phenyloxazolyl)benzene

PPAC    Parallel plate avalanche chamber

ppb    Parts per billion

PPC    P-type point contact

PPD    2,5-Diphenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole

PPE    Personal protective equipment

ppm    Parts per million

ppmw    Parts per million by weight

PPO    2,5-Diphenyloxazole

PS    Plastic scintillator, polystyrene

ps    Picosecond (10 −¹²   s)

PSA    Pulse shape analysis

PSD    Pulse shape discrimination

PSf    Plastic scintillator foils

psi    6.895   ×   10³   Pa   =   68.95   ×   10 −³   bar   =   51.715 torr

PSL    Photostimulable light (or luminescence)

PSm    Plastic scintillator microspheres

PSPC    Position-sensitive proportional counter

PSr    Plastic scintillator resins

PSUP    Photomultiplier SUPport structure

P/T    Peak-to-total ratio

PTB    Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Braunschweig

PTBT    Partial Test-Ban Treaty

PTFE    Polytetrafluoroethylene

P-TIMS    Positive ion thermal ionization mass spectrometry

PTP    p-Terphenyl

PUR    Pileup rejector

PUREX    Plutonium URanium EXtraction

PVC    Polyvinyl chloride

PVD    Physical vapor deposition

PVDF    Polyvinyldifluoride

PVT    Polyvinyl toluene

PWR    Pressurized water reactor

PXE    Phenyl-ortho-xylylethane

Q    Q value of nuclear reactions

QA    Quality assurance

QC    Quality control

QC-CPM    Quench-corrected count rate

QCD    Quantum chromodynamics

QD    Quadrupole

QDC    Charge-to-digital converter

QE    Quantum efficiency

QIP    Quench-indicating parameter

QWBA    Quantitative whole-body autoradiography

R    Roentgen (1R   =   2.58   ×   10 −⁴   C/kg)

RAC    Radon activity concentration

rad    Radiation-absorbed dose (1   rad   =   10   mGy   =   100   erg/g)

RAD    Radon-in-air monitor

RAST    Radioallergosorbent test

RBE    Relative biological effectiveness

RDC    Remote detector chamber

RDD    Radiological dispersal device (dirty bomb)

RE    Recovery efficiency

REE    Rare earth elements

REFIT    Radialelectron fluence around ion tracks

REGe    Reverse-electrode coaxial Ge detector

REL    Restricted energy loss

rem    Roentgen equivalent mammal (1   rem   =   10   mSv)

RF    Radiofrequency

RF    Feedback resister

RFQ    Radiofrequency quadruple

RH    Relative humidity

ρ    Density (g cm −³), neutron absorption cross section, resistivity

RIA    Radioimmunoassay

RICE    Radio Ice Cherenkov Experiment

RICH    Ring imaging Cherenkov (counters/detectors)

RIMS    Resonance ionization mass spectrometry

RIS    Resonant ionization

RM    Reference material

RMS    Rosette multibottle samplers

RMT    Radiometric technique

RNA    Ribonucleic acid

Ro5    Ring of Five (European radionuclide monitoring labs)

ROI    Region of interest (spectral)

ROSEBUD    The Rare Objects Search with Bolometers UndergrounD collaboration

ROV    Remotely operating vehicle

RPC    Resistive plate chamber

RPH    Relative pulse height

RSC    Renewable separation column, relative sensitivity coefficient

RSD    Relative standard deviation

RSF    Relative sensitivity factor

RST    Reverse spectral transform

s    Seconds

SAF    Subantarcticfront

SAH    S-adenosyl-homocysteine

SalSa    Salt sensor array

SAM    Standard analysis method, S-adenosyl-methionine

SAMAD    Surface area mean aerodynamic diameter

SAS    Semiconductor α-spectrometry

SBD    Surface barrier detector

SCA    Single channel analyzer

SCC    Software coincidence counting, squamous cell carcinoma

SCI    Science Citation Index

SCR    Sample channels ratio, solar cosmic rays

SCX    Strong cation exchange

SD    Standard deviation

SDCC    Simplified digital charge comparison

SDD    Silicon drift detector

SDP    Silicon drift photodiode

SDT    Shared dead time

SE    Single escape, secondary electron

sec    Seconds

SEC    Size exclusion chromatography

SEGe    Standard electrode coaxial Ge detector

SEM    Scanning electron microscopy

SF    Spontaneous fission

SFC    Supercritical fluid extraction

SFD    Scintillation fiber detector

SF-ICP-MS    Sector field–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

SFU    Stacked filter unit

SGD    Submarine groundwater discharge

SHE    Superheavy elements

SHOTS    Southern Hemisphere Oceans Tracer Studies

SHRIMP    Sensitive high mass resolution ion microprobe

SI    International System of Units, sequential injection, spray ionization

SIA    Sequential injection analysis

SIE    Spectral index of the external standard

σ    Reaction cross section, thermal neutron cross section

Si(Li)    Lithium-compensated silicon

SIMS    Secondary ionization mass spectrometry

Si PIN    Silicon p-i-n diode

SiPM    Silicon photomultiplier

SIR    International Reference System (Système Internationale de Référence)

SI-RSC    Sequential injection renewable separation column

SIS    Spectral index of the sample

SJD    Silicon junction detector

SLAC    Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

SLIM    System for Laboratory Information Management

SLM    Standard laboratory module

SLSD    Scintillator-Lucite sandwich detector

SMAD    Surface median aerodynamic diameter

SMDA    Specific minimum detectable activity

S/N    Signal-to-noise

SNAP    Systems Nuclear Auxiliary Power

SNICS    Source of Negative Ions by Cesium Sputtering

SNF    Spent nuclear fuel

SNM    Special nuclear material

SNMS    Secondary neutral mass spectrometry

SNO    Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, Canada

SNR    Signal-to-noise ratio

SNS    Spallation neutron source

SNTS    Semipalatinsk nuclear test site, Eastern Kazakhstan

SOA    Secondary organic aerosol

SOI    Silicon-on-insulator

SOP    Standard operating procedure

SPA    Scintillation proximity assay

SPC    Single photon counting

SPD    Self-powered detector

SPE    Single photon event, solid phase extraction, solid polymer electrolyte

SPECT    Single photon emission computed tomography

SPME    Solid phase microextraction

SQM    Strange quark matter

SQP(E)    Spectral quench parameter of the external standard

SQP(I)    Spectral quench parameter of the isotope

SQS    Self-quenched streamer

SQUID    Superconducting quantum interference device

SR    Superresolution, synchrotron radiation

sr    Steradian

SRAM    Static random access memory

SRM    Standard reference material

SRS    Savannah River Site

SSB    Silicon surface barrier detector

SSDD    Segmented silicon drift detector

SSE    Single site events

SSM    Standard service module, selective scintillating microsphere

SSNTD    Solid-state nuclear track detector

ST    Supersensitive

STD    Shared dead time concept

STE    Self-trapped excitation

STF    Subtropical front

STM    Scanning tunneling microscope

STNTD    Solid-state nuclear track detection (detectors)

STP    Standard temperature and pressure

STS    Semipalatinsk test site

STUK    Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Finland

Sv    Sievert (1 Sv   =   1 Gy   =   100   rem   =   1   J/kg)

SVOC    Semivolatile organic carbon

t    Ton(s)

t ½, T ½    Half-life

T    Particle kinetic energy

T    Tritium, tesla   =   1 V   s/m²

TAEK    Turkish Atomic Energy Authority

TALSPEAK    Trivalent Actinide–Lanthanide Separation by Phosphorus Extractants and Aqueous Komplexants process

TAR    Tissue–air ratio

TAT    Targeted alpha therapy

TBP    Tributyl phosphate

TBq    Terabecquerel (10¹² Bq)

TC    Total carbon

TCA    Trichloroacetic acid

TCS    True coincidence summing

TD    Time discriminator

TDCR    Triple-to-double coincidence ratio (method)

TDS    Total dissolved solids

TEA    Triethylamine

TEM    Transmission electron microscopy

TENORM    Technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials

TEPC    Tissue-equivalent proportional counter

TES    Transition edge sensor

TBAB    Tetrabutylammonium bromide

TeV    Teraelectron volts (10¹² eV)

Tf    Transfer factor (radionuclide)

TFTR    Tokamak fusion test reactor

TFWT    Tissue-free water tritium

THGEM    Thick gas electron multiplier

THM    Traveling heater method

tHM y −¹    Metric tons of heavy metal per year

TI    Transfer instrument

∼    Approximately

TIMS    Thermal ionization mass spectrometry

TINCLE    Track-in-cleavage (technique)

TINT    Track-in-track (technique)

TIOA    Triisooctylamine

TL    Thermoluminescence

TLA    Trilaurylamine

TLC    Thin-layer chromatography (chromatogram)

TLD    Thermoluminescence dosimeter

TMA    Trimethylamine

TMI    Three Mile Island

TMOS    Tetramethoxysilane

TMS    Tetramethylsilane

TNOA    Tri-n-octylamine

TNSA    Target normal sheath acceleration

TNT    Trinitrotoluene

TOA    Top of the atmosphere, trioctyl amine

TOF    Time-of-flight

TOP    Time-of-propagation

TOPO    Trioctylphosphine oxide

torr    133.3224 Pa

TP    p-Terphenyl

TPPS    Triphenylphosphine sulfide

TR    Tritium sensitive

TRACOS    Automatic system for nuclear track evaluations

TRE    12-O-Tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate responsive element

TRI    Toxic release inventory

TR-LSC    Time-resolved liquid scintillation counting

TR-PDA    Time-resolved pulse decay analysis

TRPO    Trialkyl phosphine oxide

TSC    Task sequence controller

TSCA    Toxic Substance Control Act

TSEE    Thermally stimulated exoelectron emission

tSIE    Transformed spectral index of the external standard

tSIS    Transformed spectral index of the sample

TSP    Total suspended particle

TTA    Tenoyl-tri-fluoro acetone

TTL    Transistor–transistor logic

TU    Tritium unit (0.119 Bq ³H kg −¹ H2O or 7.14 DPM of ³H L −¹ H2O or ratio of 1 atom ³H:10¹⁸ atoms of ¹H)

u    Atomic mass unit (1/12 mass of ¹²C   =   1.66054   ×   10 −²⁷ kg), up quark

   Antiup quark

u    Particle speed

u nr    Nonrelativistic particle speed

u r    Relativistic particle speed

UCN    Ultracold neutrons

UHE    Ultrahigh energy

UL    Upper level

ULB    Ultralow background

ULD    Upper level discriminator

ULEGE    Ultralow-energy Ge

UNSCEAR    UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Nuclear Radiation

UOC    Uranium ore concentrate

U.S.A.E.C.    US Atomic Energy Commission (now NRC)

U.S. DOE    US Department of Energy

USEPA    US Environmental Protection Agency

USN    Ultrasonic nebulizers

UV    Ultraviolet

V    Volts

V0    Step voltage

VAX    Digital Equipment Corporation trade name

VCCI    Variable configuration cascade impactor

VHPLC    Very-high-pressure liquid chromatography

VMEbus    Versa Module Europa bus

VSiPMT    Vacuum silicon photomultiplier tube

VUV    Vacuum ultraviolet (spectral region)

VYNS    Vinyl acetate and vinyl chloride copolymer

W    Watt (1 W   =   1   J/s)

w/w    Weight/weight

WAK    Wiederaufarbeitungsanlage (nucleal fuel reprocessing plant), Karlruhe

WBA    Whole-body autoradiography

WBEC    Weak base extraction chromatography

WCVB    Waste concentration vapor body

WDS    Wavelength dispersive spectrometer

WDX    Wavelength dispersive X-ray (analyzer)

WHO    World Health Organization

WIMP    Weakly interacting massive particle

WIPP    Waste Isolation Power Plant

WM    Weighted mean

WMO    World Meteorological Organization, Geneva

WNO    World Nuclear Organization, London

WOCE    World Ocean Circulation Experiment

WOMARS    Worldwide Marine Radioactivity Studies

WRA    Warfare radioactive agent

WSF    Wavelength shifting fiber

WSOC    Water-soluble organic carbon

wt%    Weight percent

XAF    X-ray absorption spectroscopy

XANES    X-ray absorption near edge structure

XRD    X-ray diffraction

XRF    X-ray fluorescence

XtRA    Extended range

y    Years

YAG:Yb    Yb-doped Y3Al5O12

YAP:Ce    Cerium-activated yttrium aluminum perovskite (Ce:YAlO3)

YG    Yttrium glass

YSi(Ce)    Cerium-activated yttrium silicate

Z    Atomic number

Z 2    Average atomic number

Z ef or Z eff    Effective atomic number

ZCH    Central Analytical Laboratory, Jülich

ZnS(Ag)    Silver-activated zinc sulfide

Chapter 1

Environmental radioactivity monitoring

Rudolf Engelbrecht     Radiochemistry, Seibersdorf Labor GmbH, Seibersdorf, Austria     Currently - Austrian Agency for Health and Food Security, GmbH, Vienna

Abstract

The chapter provides the understanding of the term environmental measurement as the entire process from site selection through sampling, sample preparation and analysis, or in situ measurement up to data interpretation. The process results in a determination of some physical quantity, which is an input into a dose assessment procedure. The methods for assessing radioactivity in the environment are selected by the prevailing circumstances and the objective of the investigations; thus, monitoring is of little use without a clear and explicit definition of the reasons for the monitoring and the objectives that it will satisfy. Over the past years, the analytical methods have been optimized for low-level detection and quantification of releases. Developments and trends of environmental monitoring are discussed, with a special focus on the sampling of the different media, which are of special interest in an environmental monitoring program. Although not a direct element of the analytical part of an environmental program, measurements of external dose and mobile detection systems are briefly summarized.

Keywords

Environmental monitoring; Environmental radioactivity; Environmental survey; Radiation monitoring; Radiation survey

I. Introduction: objective of environmental monitoring

II. Types of monitoring programs

A. Routine monitoring

B. Emergency preparedness

C. Emergency monitoring

III. Fundamentals of environmental monitoring

A. Design of environmental monitoring programs

B. Sampling strategies

C. Sample preparation

D. Measurement and quantification

E. Quality assurance/quality control

IV. Monitoring for internal exposure

A. Air

1. Aerosols

2. Online versus offline systems

3. Gaseous effluents

B. Soil, sediments, vegetation, and deposits

1. Laboratory based

2. In situ gamma spectroscopy

C. Water

1. Wastewater

2. Rain

3. Groundwater

4. Surface water

5. Drinking water

D. Foodstuff

1. Milk

2. Meat and fish

3. Vegetables, fruits, and cereals

4. Mixed diet

V. Monitoring for external exposure

A. Dose rate monitoring

B. Dose monitoring

VI. Mobile monitoring

A. Aerial measurements

B. Mobile laboratories

References

Further reading

Rudolf Engelbrecht

I. Introduction: objective of environmental monitoring

As recent history (e.g., IAEA, 2011; UNSCEAR, 2014; IAEA, 2015; IRSN, 2018) has shown to scientists and the public, transparent and comprehensible dose assessments, including estimation of doses as closely as possible to those actually received, are a fundamental basis of managing radiation protection. The most realistic assessment of doses is obtained by using measured activity concentrations in environmental media and measurements of external dose rates. Environmental monitoring provides data that permit the analysis and evaluation of radiation fields and radionuclide activity concentrations in environmental samples relevant to human exposure, primarily in air, drinking water, agricultural products, and natural foodstuffs, as well as in bioindicators that concentrate radionuclides and provide a measure of trends in activity levels.

Thus, environmental monitoring can be described as the exposition scenario–based systematic sampling and analysis of air, water, soil, and biota to assess environmental conditions. The objective of such monitoring is to obtain solid information that will serve as the basis for measures and political decisions. Environmental monitoring assessments can involve establishing baseline quality, uncovering environmental trends, identifying any variations, detecting new environmental issues, and determining the progress made to achieve environmental goals.

It is important to distinguish the specific aspects of environmental monitoring data obtained under normal operating conditions from those obtained under emergency conditions since the criteria for evaluation are completely different. Under normal operating conditions, data are often important for the statutory control of releases, but the levels set are to be related to human tissue doses. In case of a possible accidental release of radioactivity, the monitoring program aims at answering questions, such as Has an abnormal release occurred? Is there action to be taken? and Which remedial measures should be brought about? Thus, distinction can be made between the following different situations:

Routine monitoring–emergency preparedness–emergency monitoring.

For each of these situations, the type of monitoring program to be established is influenced by the source of radioactivity as well as the scale of the spatial and temporal boundaries of the environment to be monitored. In the end, the goal of monitoring the environment always is to obtain a profound set of data that will serve as a basis that enables authorities to implement measures for either preserving environmental values or preventing their deterioration.

II. Types of monitoring programs

A. Routine monitoring

Routine monitoring programs aim at providing information on the overall dose received by the population at large. The setup of the monitoring is the result of an optimization process in which the availability of measurement resources, the relative importance of different exposure pathways, and the levels of activity and dose in relation to the regulatory constraints are taken into consideration. Routine environmental radiation monitoring programs are designed specifically for each facility, taking into account site-specific factors, such as climate, site location, the design of the facility and its barriers, geological and geomorphological conditions, the off-site environment, and the population distribution (IAEA, 2004); these programs are conducted both on and outside the site giving rise to potential exposure of the public to radionuclides in the environment.

The life cycle of the routine programs for environmental monitoring comprises preoperational studies, performed to establish baseline environmental radiation levels and activity concentrations for the purpose of subsequently determining the impacts of the source, monitoring during the operational phase, and decommissioning or postoperation monitoring, performed as long as the facility remains a potential source of radionuclides that could be released to the environment. The complexity of the program depends on the identities, quantities, and chemical and physical forms of radionuclides that may be released and on the characteristics of the monitored environment. Once a monitoring program has been implemented, it should be reviewed periodically to ensure that it continually fulfills the objectives.

The purpose of routine environmental monitoring of airborne radioactivity is to monitor domestic and foreign facilities. Sampling of soils, sediments, or deposits serves as an indicator of long-term buildup of radioactivity in the environment. Measurement of ingredients in foodstuff and water is intended to complete the monitoring program for the migration of radionuclides in the food chain or to check the contamination of the public at large by ingestion. Monitoring locations for ground- and surface water, sediment, biota, and foodstuffs are related to the potential migration pathways determined by preoperational studies, and the frequencies of sampling and measurements are specified with a view to the timely detection of significant changes in the release rates and concentrations of radionuclides and the associated levels of human exposure in accordance with the monitoring objectives.

It has to be noted that radon monitoring, which forms the main exposure to radioactive sources to members of the public (UNSCEAR, 2000b), is not implemented in environmental monitoring programs but conducted in special radon survey programs (e.g., Friedmann et al., 2007).

Recent attention has been paid to radiation risk to the people and the environment caused by exposure to ionizing radiation originating from naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs). NORMs touch many aspects of life, starting with occupational risk, through some contaminated goods, leisure activities including spa visits and ending with a huge amount of bulk waste often dumped in our vicinity (Kathren, 1998; IAEA, 2003). Such alterations to the natural state result in an increment of radiation risk to the people as well as to nonhuman biota. Each particular type of NORM determines a unique scenario of exposure usually differing from those caused by the artificial radionuclides (Martin et al., 1997).

The measurements must be adequate to determine radiation levels and trends of environmental radioactivity at levels just detectable, the parameters needed for subsequent dose assessment, and compliance with national or international standards, constraints, or limits laid down for the protection of the population. These limits and constraints have values that are typically less than exposure due to natural background radiation. It is, thus, necessary to be able to identify the source and to circumscribe the extent of the radioactive material with reasonable accuracy.

The objectives of routine monitoring programs are to

• provide information to assess the adequacy of protection of the public,

• meet requirements of regulatory agencies,

• verify radionuclide containment and/or waste management practices,

• meet legal liability obligations, and

• provide public assurance.

B. Emergency preparedness

Environmental monitoring may be conducted continuously to serve as a detection system. Emergency preparedness monitoring is part of a strategy for data and information acquisition. The overall emergency strategy includes two