Red Coats and Wild Birds: How Military Ornithologists and Migrant Birds Shaped Empire

By Kirsten A. Greer

During the nineteenth century, Britain maintained a complex network of garrisons to manage its global empire. While these bases helped the British project power and secure trade routes, they served more than just a strategic purpose. During their tours abroad, many British officers engaged in formal and informal scientific research. In this ambitious history of ornithology and empire, Kirsten A. Greer tracks British officers as they moved around the world, just as migratory birds traversed borders from season to season.

Greer examines the lives, writings, and collections of a number of ornithologist-officers, arguing that the transnational encounters between military men and birds simultaneously shaped military strategy, ideas about race and masculinity, and conceptions of the British Empire. Collecting specimens and tracking migratory bird patterns enabled these men to map the British Empire and the world and therefore to exert imagined control over it. Through its examination of the influence of bird watching on military science and soldiers' contributions to ornithology, Red Coats and Wild Birds remaps empire, nature, and scientific inquiry in the nineteenth-century world.

• Language: English
• Publisher: The University of North Carolina Press
• Release date: Nov 21, 2019
• ISBN: 9781469649849

Kirsten A. Greer

Kirsten A. Greer is associate professor and Canada Research Chair in Global Environmental Histories and Geographies at Nipissing University.

Book preview

Red Coats and Wild Birds

FLOWS, MIGRATIONS, AND EXCHANGES

Mart A. Stewart and Harriet Ritvo, editors

The Flows, Migrations, and Exchanges series publishes new works of environmental history that explore the cross-border movements of organisms and materials that have shaped the modern world, as well as the varied human attempts to understand, regulate, and manage these movements.

Red Coats and Wild Birds

How Military Ornithologists and Migrant Birds Shaped Empire

Kirsten A. Greer

The University of North Carolina Press CHAPEL HILL

Publication of this book was supported in part by a generous gift from Kim and Phil Phillips.

© 2020 The University of North Carolina Press

All rights reserved

Set in Merope Basic by Westchester Publishing Services

Manufactured in the United States of America

The University of North Carolina Press has been a member of the Green Press Initiative since 2003.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Greer, Kirsten A., author.

Title: Red coats and wild birds : how military ornithologists and migrant birds shaped empire / Kirsten A. Greer.

Other titles: Flows, migrations, and exchanges.

Description: Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina Press,

[2020]

| Series: Flows, migrations, and exchanges | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: During the nineteenth century, Britain maintained a complex network of garrisons to manage its global empire. While these bases helped the British project power and secure trade routes, they served more than just a strategic purpose. During their tours abroad, many British officers engaged in formal and informal scientific research. In this ambitious history of ornithology and empire, Kirsten A. Greer tracks British officers as they moved around the world, just as migratory birds traversed borders from season to season—Provided by publisher.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019019412 | ISBN 9781469649825 (cloth : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781469649832 (pbk : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781469649849 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Blakiston, Thomas Wright, 1832–1891. | Ornithologists— Great Britain—History—19th century—Biography. | Migratory birds— Social aspects—Mediterranean Region. | Great Britain—Armed Forces— Officers—History—19th century—Biography. | Great Britain—Colonies— Geography. | Great Britain—Colonies—History—19th century. | Mediterranean Region—History—19th century.

Classification: LCC DA68 .G825 2020 | DDC 355.0092/241—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019019412

Cover illustration: Cornelius Krieghoff, An Officer’s Room in Montreal (oil on canvas), 1846. Used with permission of the Royal Ontario Museum © ROM.

I dedicate this book to my daughter, Annsophie.

Contents

Acknowledgments

Introduction

CHAPTER ONE

Red Coats and Wild Birds across the British Empire

CHAPTER TWO

Thomas Wright Blakiston

Crimean Scientific War Hero

CHAPTER THREE

Andrew Leith Adams

Mediterranean Semitropicality

CHAPTER FOUR

Leonard Howard Lloyd Irby

British Military Ornithology on the Rock

CHAPTER FIVE

Philip Savile Grey Reid

Red Coats and Wild Birds on the Home Front

CHAPTER SIX

Military Ornithology in Place

Territoriality, Situated Knowledges, and Heterogeneities

Afterword

Avian Colonial Afterlives

Notes

Bibliography

Index

Figures and Maps

FIGURES

1. Cornelius Kreighoff, An Officer’s Room in Montreal, 1846 xii

2. Emily Mary Bibbens Warren, Nesting-Series of British Birds at Natural History Museum at South Kensington, London, 1888 11

3. Schema Avium Distributionis Geographicæ 16

4. Map of Philip L. Sclater’s 1858 and 1899 zoogeographic regions of the globe 22

5. The Great Bustard in Britain 24

6. Sketch of a hoopoe by John Gerrard Keulemans 43

7. The first issue of the Ibis (1859) 57

8. The Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus) 65

9. A. Thornbury, Bearded Vulture 72

10. Descent to Nest of Bonelli’s Eagle 74

11. Tzelatza Valley, Morocco 78

12. Sketch of an osprey (Pandion haliaetus) 83

13. Ta’ Braxia Cemetery, Malta 106

MAPS

1. Route of Thomas Wright Blakiston 24

2. Routes of Andrew Leith Adams 42

3. Routes of Leonard Howard Lloyd Irby 64

4. Route of Philip Savile Grey Reid 82

5. Routes of the royal military officers 98

Acknowledgments

The idea for this project began after I viewed an oil painting by Cornelius Kreighoff of an officer in his private quarters while stationed in Montreal in the 1840s, now housed at the Royal Ontario Museum. At the time, I was working as a collections assistant in the Department of Ornithology and had completed a thesis on the historical geographies of colonial ornithology in Upper Canada (now Ontario). The painting featured an officer, assistant surgeon Andrew Aylmer Staunton, relaxing at his desk, reading a book among the various accoutrements associated with army service in British North America, such as landscape paintings, furs, snowshoes, firearms, fishing gear, First Nations beading, books, and a bust of Shakespeare (figure 1). Animals were prominent in the room, including two live dogs, a head of a lynx, moose antlers, and at least five species of North American birds mounted on the wall (blue jay, osprey, an owl), sitting on a shelf (American wood duck), or in a glass case (scarlet tanager).

Several questions crossed my mind when I observed the details of the painting more carefully. Considering that British officers, such as Staunton, often occupied several imperial sites throughout their military careers, to what extent and in what ways did British military officers engage in ornithological activities in different parts of the British Empire? How were these activities facilitated by their postings to different sites, and did they help the advancement of their careers? How did imperial ornithologists encounter different local cultures (with different attitudes toward hunting, birds, field science, etc.) and different local natures (different sets of birds, climates, and environments)? These initial questions guided the research and my continued interest in the colonial legacies of human-environment relations in the past within the context of the nineteenth-century British Empire.

This project would not have been possible without the guidance of many individuals. First, I would like to thank David Lambert (History, University of Warwick) for his initial support of my doctoral project while in the Department of Geography at Royal Holloway, University of London. He and Alan Lester were in the process of publishing their book, Colonial Lives across the British Empire: Imperial Careering in the Long Nineteenth Century (2006), and he shared with me several chapters for my Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) Doctoral Fellowship proposal. David would later serve as a host supervisor for my SSHRC Michael Smith Foreign Study Supplement, and as a postdoctoral mentor for my SSHRC Postdoctoral Fellowship at the University of Warwick.

FIGURE 1 Cornelius Kreighoff, An Officer’s Room in Montreal, 1846. Oil on canvas, 40.0 × 48.6 cm, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

As a doctoral student in the Department of Geography at Queen’s University, Kingston, I benefited greatly from the co-supervision of two amazing historical geographers, Laura Cameron and Joan Schwartz. Together, they continually challenged me throughout my four years at Queen’s and helped me to grow intellectually, think creatively, and embrace the process. I would not have been able to complete my dissertation without their supervision and encouragement. I also would like to acknowledge the important role that Sandra den Otter, from the Department of History, played as a doctoral committee member on my research project, and the continual support of Brian Osborne (Geography) and Bob Montgomerie (Biology), who have been my two biggest supporters.

Much of my work has been informed by the graduate courses at Queen’s, such as GPHY 801 Conceptual and Methodological Basis of Geography and GPHY 870 Historical and Cultural Issues in Fieldwork with Laura Cameron; ARTH 862 History of Photography 1 with Joan Schwartz; and HIST 859 Britain and the Empire, 1780–1945 with Sandra den Otter. I learned from my doctoral committee members, Audrey Kobayashi, George Lovell, and Anne Godlewska, and other faculty members, such as Warren Mabee, Beverley Mullings, Joyce Davidson, John Holmes, Jamie Linton, Betsy Donald, Mark Rosenberg, Paul Treitz, Gerry Barber, Neal Scott, Ryan Danbee, Melissa Lafreniere, and Scott Lamoureux. I would like to extend a special thank-you to the administrative staff in the Department of Geography: Joan Knox, Kathy Hoover, and Sharon Mohammed.

I am grateful for my colleagues at Nipissing University, where I have found a home both in the Departments of Geography and History and in the Masters of Environmental Studies/Environmental Sciences graduate program. My colleagues have been a source of inspiration to help me finish my book. They include April James, Jamie Murton, John Kovacs, Dan Walters, Adam Csank, Katrina Srigley, Carly Dokis, Hilary Earl, Jeff Dech, Nathan Kozuskanich, Robin Gendron, Sean O’Hagan, Jason Kovacs, and Catherine Murton-Stoehr.

A number of people have provided feedback on conference papers and journal articles that informed my book, such as David Livingstone, Alan Lester, Robin Doughty, John Tunbridge, Daniel Clayton, Felix Driver, David Gilbert, Diarmid Finnegan, Hayden Lorimer, David Matless, Bernard Lightman, Christopher Smout, Larry Sawchuk, Janet Padiak, Emilie Cameron, and Melissa Shaw. I would like to acknowledge the influence of my former professors Jeanne Kay Guelke and Suzanne Zeller, who introduced me to historical and cultural geography and the history of science while I was a master’s student; and my fellow historical geography colleagues who have supported me throughout my project, including Bob Wilson, Arn Keeling, Maria Lane, Matt Farish, and Dean Bavington.

I am thankful for the expertise and assistance of Henry McGhie, John Borg, Charles Farrugia, Jim Burant, Mark Sanchez, Mark Adams, Alison Harding, Robert Prys-Jones, Paul Evans, Clemency Fisher, Nigel Monaghan, Tony Irwin, James Dean, Michael Brooke, Alastair Massey, Peter Meadows, Paul Martyn Cooper, Bob McGowan, Lorna Swift, Andrew Davis, David Reid, Zena Tooze, Andrew Reid, Sally Day, Victoria Dickenson, Kerry Patterson, Jude James, Sandy Leishman, Douglas Russell, Catriona Mulcahy, John Cortes, Damian Holmes, and Kimberley Hurni.

My project was funded by the SSHRC Joseph-Armand Bombardier Canada Graduate Scholarship, the SSHRC Michael Smith Foreign Study Supplement, the Ontario Graduate Scholarship, the Carville Earle Dissertation Research Award from the American Association of Geographers Historical Geography Specialty Group, and other internal and external grants, such as the Queen’s University Tri-Council Recipient Recognition Award, and the Queen’s University Dean’s Travel Grant.

Finally, I would not have been able to complete my studies without the love and support of my friends and family. While at Queen’s University, I developed lasting friendships with colleagues Sinead Earley, Katie Hemsworth, Heather Hall, Giselle Valazero, Kirby Calvert, Melanie-Josee Davidson, and Brendan Sweeney. I also have made new friends who helped me finish my book, including Megan Prescott, Sabrina Morrison, Laurel Muldoon, Emily Fachnie, Steven Johansson, and my family at Crossfit 705. I would not have made it without all of you. I am forever thankful to Sean Badali, Jennifer Steele, David Lutterman, Kristen Ligers, Brian and Nicole Giles, Todd Woodcroft, Sarah Borisko, Karen Borisko, Don and Mary Borisko, Heidi Bloomfield, Sascha McLeod, Eva Greer, Caroline Wetherilt, Colin Greer (brother), Thomas Greer (dad), Lillian Anderson (mom), and especially my daughter, Annsophie, to whom I dedicate this book.

Red Coats and Wild Birds

Introduction

For the few last decades, there has been talk of a war on European migrant birds in the southernmost point of the European Union (EU) and former British colony—Malta. Located in the Mediterranean Sea, Malta has long been viewed as a bridge between Europe and North Africa, with its proximity to Tunisia and Libya in the south and Sicily to the north. Each spring and autumn, thousands of European migrating birds use the Maltese Islands as a resting place for their long journeys to and from their wintering grounds in Africa. Honey buzzards, marsh harriers, hoopoes, bee-eaters, quail, and turtledoves abound, making it a potential birdwatchers’ paradise.¹

Internationally, Malta has been portrayed as the killing fields of Europe and the most savagely bird-hostile place on the continent despite becoming a member state of the EU in 2004.² With the densest population in the world of bird hunters and trappers per square kilometer, migrant birds are subjected to a flurry of gunshot and traps, with many ending their lives as trophies or for pot. Malta’s obligation to uphold the EU’s nature conservation legislation, the Birds Directive (2009/147/EEC), has become a major source of conflict for the Maltese, which made it one of the top issues in the 2009 EU elections when I was there in the spring of that year.³ Maltese bird hunters and trappers espouse their traditional and legal rights to engage in spring hunting, using the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and the Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions to support their claims.⁴

As part of Europe’s shared natural heritage, the illegal bird hunt has enraged northern European environmentalists, who condemn publicly the killing of protected migratory birds. Framing the hunt as a mass slaughter, hundreds of bird volunteers, many from the United Kingdom, descend on the islands every spring and fall to stop the butchery. According to popular British nature writer Michael McCarthy, writing in 2008: It is Europe’s worst and most senseless wildlife massacre, resulting in the annual death of thousands of birds about to breed all over the continent. But this spring, conservationists are heading for the Mediterranean to help end it.⁵ Such impassioned declarations have ignited physical confrontations among bird protectionists and bird hunters in the Maltese countryside, illustrating the intensity of the war on European migrant birds.

Moreover, Malta’s so-called unnatural relationship with birds has been put into sharp relief in comparison to Britain’s other previous Mediterranean colony—Gibraltar. Once a monument to empire, the British overseas territory is now promoted as a model of nature conservation and ornithological study in the Mediterranean. Here, migrant birds are protected and studied, in contrast to Malta or Cyprus, where, according to McCarthy, only one fate would await these birds: the pot. Here on the ‘island’ of Gibraltar they are sacrificed twenty minutes of freedom in the cause of ornithology and were sent on their way.⁶

While some people have claimed that the EU is another form of imperialism now imposed on the Maltese, what is missing from this understanding, I believe, are the ways in which bird protection in Malta, the production of the Maltese pothunter, and environmental ideas of British migrant birds and semitropicality are rooted in part in Britain’s imperial past in the Mediterranean region.⁷ By the mid-nineteenth century, Malta, in addition to Gibraltar, served as a transimperial station that connected Britain to Asia, as well as British North America, West Indies, and Africa, through the flow of military manpower, commodities, information, and bodily experiences across the empire. Known as the empire route and the artery of empire, the material chain of military stations in the Mediterranean provided the shortest route to India and formed the spine of prosperity and security of the British Empire, especially with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.⁸ The strategic position of Gibraltar and Malta also facilitated increased access of Britain’s army to different parts of the empire, as Britain’s involvement in the small wars in India and Africa and its imperial interests in China increased the demand for troops.⁹ British imperial policy with regard to the Mediterranean therefore reflected the role of this strategic route to India from Britain.¹⁰

In order to trace some of these trajectories, this book focuses on the nineteenth-century British Mediterranean, when the region emerged as a crucial location for the security of British trade routes to India and South Asia, and when the acquisition and maintenance of Britain’s global empire depended on the efficiency and presence of military manpower stationed at key sites in the Mediterranean region such as Gibraltar and Malta. As Philip Howell has stated, the British Mediterranean has often been left out of the histories of the British Empire and deserves greater notice,¹¹ despite significant work on the region by environmental historians and historical geographers.¹²

Britain’s imperial presence in the Mediterranean region was contingent on other competing empires (i.e., French, Spanish, Ottoman, Italian, Russian, German) in its attempts at maintaining control in the region and bringing North Africa into its informal empire, described here as the links fostered by trade, investments, diplomacy, or scientific networks that drew new regions into the world-capitalist system.¹³ Britain relied on Islamic regimes for basic sustenance at its garrisons, especially at Gibraltar, where Morocco was the main supplier of bullocks during a time when British military reforms included a change in diet from salt meat to fresh meat.¹⁴ In Tunis, British officials depended heavily on bullocks, sheep, fruit, and vegetables in return for Manchester cottons, Sheffield knives, London pickles, sauces, and tinned meat (Manai 2006, 367–68). British imperial policy in the Mediterranean thus engendered its own unique geopolitics and practices between Protestant Britons, European Catholics, Mediterranean Jews, and North African Muslims, reflecting in part the limits to British imperial power in the region (Colley 1992, 132).

Furthermore, Britain experienced significant changes at home and abroad with shifting geopolitical circumstances (i.e., the Crimean War, the Indian Mutiny, the Jamaican Rebellion, the Franco-Prussian War, the Scramble for Africa), which altered natural and national boundary-lines and spatial orderings of empire. Some believed Britain’s decline in military authority was a result of a regimental system that promoted a culture of gentlemanly amateurism,¹⁵ sparking changes in the British army with the Cardwell-Childers Reforms (1870–81) and the Royal Commission on the Defence of British Possessions and Commerce Abroad (1879–82).

At home, Britain witnessed rapid industrialization, urbanization, mechanization, and changes in the rural landscape, creating class tensions and changing the ways in which people interacted with urban and rural landscapes. New technologies of travel and communication (i.e., the railway, the telegraph, the steamship) helped to shift perceptions of time and space, creating a crisis in identity that resulted in a devotion to more localized memories of place, nation, and region.¹⁶ The perceived degenerative effects of progress from industry, capitalism, and social mobility also resulted in the dismantling of fixed hierarchies, places, and temporal trajectories, creating anxieties over the loss of "our

[British]

world."¹⁷ These transformations resulted in the rise of national heritage preservation movements in Britain, which advocated for preservation based on cultural value, and the idea of the countryside as a repository of a way of life that required protection, which, this books argues, extended to the migrant birds associated with these landscapes.¹⁸

The British Mediterranean was where British army officers started to think about modern ideas of bird migration from Europe to Africa, as well as the boundary between the temperate (Europe) and tropical (Africa) worlds. It was in Gibraltar that English naturalist Mark Catesby’s (1682–1749) military brother collected birds when stationed there in the 1740s and sent specimens to British naturalist George Edwards, who wrote about bird migration.¹⁹ Considering the scale of Britain’s global empire, the British armed forces composed the largest group of bird collectors across the globe in their zeal for sporting zoology.²⁰ Their privileged positions in colonies abroad allowed them access to places that were off limits to the regular traveler and naturalist, helping them build up vast collections of bird skins, eggs, and nests, while their transient movements across different imperial sites created opportunities for comparison of birds, peoples, and landscapes. Considering how the collecting practices of British military officers were integral to the establishment of many natural history collections in Britain, their natural history collections, as well as the birds commemorated with their names, present historical and cultural meanings intricately linked to identity, colonial expansion, and empire. Thus, the flow of wild birds provided a tangible link from Britain to its colonies in the Mediterranean, Africa, and Asia.

Surprisingly, studies on the history of ornithology have also overlooked the contributions of British military officers and their role as men at the forefront of empire. E. G. Allen’s seminal work on the history of ornithology includes some biographies of British military officers who contributed to the field, such as Blagden and Sabine of the Royal Artillery.²¹ Similarly, Barbara Mearns and Richard Mearns highlight the lives of similar individuals who collected birds in different regions of the British Empire.²² Yet, their works remain popular histories of ornithology, which require further analysis into the ways imperial and gendered positionalities shaped military ornithological practices and ideas across the British Empire.²³

Research on ornithology as a military practice has emphasized the ways ornithological fieldwork and military cultures have facilitated territorial conquest and maintenance