The Theology of the Four Gospels

By Mel Shoemaker

Biblical theology is the discovery and development of doctrine as found and emphasized by a specific book of the Bible. Instead of beginning with a subject and then searching the scriptures broadly to assemble what may be relevant and illuminate ones understanding of that specific topic, biblical theology starts with a particular author and focuses upon a specific scriptural unit. The objective is to let the Bible speak for itself and discover what the original writer(s) wanted readersor those listening to the readingto understand. Therefore, New Testament biblical theology assists the student in understanding the distinctive doctrinal enrichment each book in the Christian canon brings to the collection of authoritative literature.

The Theology of the Four Gospels is designed to engage an individual or group in a fresh study of the teachings of Jesus and the distinctive perspectives of the Four EvangelistsMatthew, Mark, Luke and John. Even though everyone participating in the study is examining the same literature, the conclusions may vary widely, which may contribute to a very fruitful discussion. Why should one anticipate a variety of interpretations? Each person comes to the study of the Bible with prior opinions, judgments, and beliefs. These presuppositions have been formed by our culture (e.g., ethnicity, political, social, economic, and religious background), critical knowledge (educational background in history, literature, language, natural abilities, life experiences, and age), and character (moral values, belief in the supernatural, human immortality, accountability, rational choices, and spiritual maturity).

This is the goalto let the Four Gospels speak for themselves. The theological outcome may be tentative and provisional; however, the reader or student becomes engaged in the process of building a sound, personal theology and a steadfast, living faith in Jesus Christ.

• Language: English
• Publisher: WestBow Press
• Release date: Oct 28, 2011
• ISBN: 9781449729240

Mel Shoemaker

Rev. Dr. Melvin H. Shoemaker (MDiv, MPhil, DMin) was professor of New Testament biblical literature and theology in the School of Theology at Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, California, from 1986 to 2005. Previously, he was professor of religion at Oklahoma Wesleyan University, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, and Indiana Wesleyan University, Marion, Indiana. He is an ordained minister in the Wesleyan Church and served as a parish minister for twenty years. He is the author of The Theology of the Four Gospels (WestBow Press, 2011) and Good News for Today: A Lenten Devotional (WestBow Press, 2013) and is a contributor to numerous anthologies, dictionaries, and scholarly journals in biblical literature and theology. Dr. Shoemaker retired in 2005 and now resides in Portland, Oregon.

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The Theology of

the Four Gospels

MEL SHOEMAKER

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Copyright © 2011 Mel Shoemaker.

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ISBN: 978-1-4497-2926-4 (hc)

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2011918775

WestBow Press rev. date: 10/24/2011

CONTENTS

Preface

Acknowledgments

Introduction to

New Testament

Biblical Theology

Canonicity

and

Contextualization

INTRODUCTION: CANONICITY

INTRODUCTION: CONTEXTUALIZATION

Part One

The Theology of

The Gospel of Mark

MARK: JESUS CHRIST, THE SON OF GOD

MARK: THE MIRACLES OF JESUS

MARK: THE MISSION OF JESUS AND THE CHURCH

MARK: SECOND COMING OF JESUS CHRIST

Part Two

The Theology of

The Gospel of Luke

LUKE: JESUS CHRIST, THE SON OF MAN

LUKE: THE COST OF DISCIPLESHIP

LUKE: THE MANAGEMENT OF RESOURCES

LUKE: A CALL TO PRAYER

LUKE: A CASE FOR TAX REFORM

LUKE: SALVATION AND STEWARDSHIP

Part Three

The Theology of the

Gospel of Matthew

MATTHEW: THE CHARACTER OF A TRUE DISCIPLE

MATTHEW: THE LAW OF LOVE

MATTHEW: CHRISTIAN PIETY

MATTHEW: THE KINGDOM OF GOD IN THE PARABLES OF JESUS

MATTHEW: THE REVELATION OF GOD IN THE PARABLES OF JESUS

MATTHEW: THE FINAL JUDGMENT IN THE PARABLES OF JESUS

Part Four

The Theology of

The Gospel of John

JOHN: GOD THE SON

JOHN: GOD THE FATHER

JOHN: GOD THE SPIRIT

JOHN: THE CRUCIAL CENTER

JOHN: THE CHRISTIAN LIFE

JOHN: THE COMMUNITY OF FAITH

About the Author

To My Beloved Glenna

A wife of noble character… is worth far more than rubies (Prov. 31:10).

Preface

Biblical theology is the discovery and development of doctrine as found and emphasized by a specific book or unit of the scriptures. Instead of beginning with a subject and then searching the Scripture broadly to assemble what may be relevant and illuminate one’s understanding of that specific topic, biblical theology starts with and stays focused upon a specific scriptural unit. The selected readings in the biblical text will vary in length, and in this series of studies, they have been chosen to permit the reader—both leader and student—to observe, analyze, and evaluate the text for him or herself. The objective is to let the Bible speak for itself and discover what the original writer(s) wanted his readers—or those listening to the reading—to understand. More specifically the objective is to grasp the specific theological emphasis of the literary unit being studied. Therefore, New Testament biblical theology assists the student in understanding the distinctive doctrinal enrichment each book in the Christian canon brings to the collection of authoritative literature.

Even though everyone participating in the exercise is examining the same literature, the conclusions may vary widely, which may contribute to considerable discussion. Why should one anticipate a variety of interpretations? Each person comes to the study of the biblical text with prior opinions, judgments, and beliefs. These presuppositions have been formed by our culture (e.g., ethnicity and political, social, economic, and religious background), critical knowledge (educational background in history, literature, language, natural abilities, life experiences, and age), and character (moral values, belief in the supernatural, human immortality, accountability, rational choices, and spiritual maturity). In those groups where there is greater diversity in ethnicity, age, education, and spiritual maturity, the study and discussions will be the most vigorous and fruitful. Some who have been Christians for many years may be surprised to learn what the Bible actually says and the challenges it makes concerning some long-held beliefs.

This is the goal—to let the Bible speak for itself and investigate what the original writer wanted his reader(s) or those listening to the reading to understand. Therefore, the primary methodology in these studies is inductive. Readings are suggested; theological questions are raised; then there is analysis and commentary on the specific selected text(s). The theological outcome may be tentative and provisional; however, the reader or student has become engaged in the process of building a sound, personal theology and a steadfast, living faith in Jesus Christ.

Acknowledgments

Many people have contributed to the writing of The Theology of the Four Gospels—directly and indirectly. From the cradle, my spiritual life was formed and nurtured by the living faith of devout Quaker-Wesleyan Methodist parents, who began each day with the reading of the Bible and family prayers. In a small, rural Indiana church, the Sunday school teachers encouraged and rewarded the memorization of Scripture, and godly pastors faithfully called us to follow in the footsteps of Jesus. It was there that I was called to preach and teach the word of God on July 15, 1956, when I was sixteen.

I am especially indebted to the dedicated faculty of Indiana Wesleyan University, who introduced me to Greek and theology. At Asbury Theological Seminary, the English Bible was the core of the curriculum, and my understanding and love of the sacred Scriptures blossomed under the rigor and inspiration of George A. Turner, J. Harold Greenlee, Dennis F. Kinlaw, James D. Robertson, et al. Before his death in 1999, William L. Lane, the dean of the School of Religion at Seattle Pacific University, and I frequently discussed our mutual desire for an inductive text in New Testament biblical theology.

I am also grateful to the student-scholars who have sat at the table with me in the sacred task of studying and understanding the theological teachings of the holy Scriptures. Some were recent high school graduates, many were in the university honors program, and others were active pastors and church administrators quite senior to me in the Christian faith.

The Disciples Bible Class of the Pasadena (CA) First Church of the Nazarene has participated in a unique way in the refinement of The Theology of the Four Gospels. For fifteen years, these brothers and sisters in the faith have invited me to teach this dynamic assembly one or more months each year, and together we have studied, debated, and tested The Theology of the Four Gospels. The inductive methodology and provocative questions created an energetic, broad participation around the tables and open Bibles.

The completion of The Theology of the Four Gospels would not have been realized without the steadfast encouragement and suggestions of Glenna Cockrell Shoemaker, my beloved wife and partner of fifty years. She has listened to my fermenting theological ruminations and my teaching with both a critical mind and a sympathetic heart. We continue to hold hands as we walk and talk. Together, we thank God for our wonderful adventure—this earthly road trip.

—Melvin H. Shoemaker

2011

Introduction to

New Testament

Biblical Theology

Canonicity

and

Contextualization

The Theology of the Four Gospels—Study 1

INTRODUCTION: CANONICITY

Text: Remind them of this, and warn them before God that they are to avoid wrangling over words, which does no good but only ruins those who are listening. Do your best to present yourself to God as one approved by him, a worker who has no need to be ashamed, rightly explaining the word of truth (2 Tim. 2:14-15).

I. INTRODUCTION TO BIBLICAL THEOLOGY

Biblical theology is the discovery and development of doctrine as found and emphasized by a specific book or unit of the scriptures. Instead of beginning with a subject and then searching the scripture broadly to assemble what may be relevant and illuminate one’s understanding of that specific topic, biblical theology starts with and stays focused upon a specific scriptural unit. The selected readings in the biblical text will vary in length, and in this series of studies, the quotations have been chosen to permit the reader—both leader and student—to observe, analyze, and evaluate the text for oneself. The objective is to let the Bible speak for itself and discover what the original writer(s) wanted readers—or those listening to the reading—to understand from the literary unit being studied. Therefore, New Testament biblical theology assists the student in understanding the distinctive doctrinal enrichment each book in the Christian canon brings to the collection of authoritative literature.

II. THE METHOD OF THEOLOGICAL DISCOVERY AND DISCUSSION

Question: Why are there diverse theological interpretations of a specific biblical text, when the meaning of the text seems so straightforward and clear?

Even though everyone is examining the same literature, the conclusions may vary widely, which may lead to considerable discussion. Each person comes to the study of the biblical text with prior opinions, judgments, and beliefs. These presuppositions have been formed by our culture (e.g., ethnicity, political, social, economic, and religious background); critical knowledge (educational background in history, literature, language, natural abilities, life experiences, and age); and character (moral values, belief in the supernatural, human immortality, accountability, rational choices, and spiritual maturity). In those groups where there is greater diversity in ethnicity, age, education, and spiritual maturity, the study and discussions will be the most vigorous and fruitful. Some people who have been Christians for many years may be surprised to learn what the Bible actually says and the challenges it makes concerning some long-held beliefs.

Quest to Understand the Author’s Original Meaning

The goal is to let the Bible speak for itself and investigate what the original writer wanted readers or those listening to the reading to understand. In this book, each study will follow a three-step process: (1) observation, (2) analysis, and (3) application.

Step 1. Observation: What does the author say?

The first step, observation, makes a general survey of the unit of study. This overview is done by reading the selected passage and then reviewing the unit to learn some of the basic facts. Like a detective, one asks several general questions:

Who are the characters in the story?

Where does the story take place?

When does the story take place?

What is the subject or theme of the story?

These questions may or may not be answerable from the initial reading, but the process will yield an increasing awareness and familiarity with the text. The first step in the quest for understanding is in the present tense without historical and contextual analysis: What does the author say?

Step 2. Analysis: What did the author mean?

The second step, analysis, digs deeper, seeking to understand the meaning of the text in its historical and literary context. This step is also called exegesis, a Greek term that means to lead or draw out, to interpret or explain the meaning of the text. Again, investigative questions are useful. What is the historical context? Who wrote the literature and what is known about the author? Who were the original primary recipients or readers? What is the nature of the literature? Is this a portion of a gospel or a letter of correspondence? Is it a story or the development of a theological theme? Is it a parable or a miracle? Did the speaker or author mean for the unit to be understood literally or figuratively? There are several tools or laws of composition by which one may uncover clues and facts which remain hidden at first.

• Is there an introductory sentence or paragraph in the unit that sets the stage for the unit?

• Dig deeper with questions: Why is a certain person prominent in the story? How does Jesus answer the Pharisees? Is the atmosphere hostile or conciliatory? Why does Jesus answer a question with a parable? How is the social tension between Jews and Gentiles reflected in Paul’s argument, e.g. Romans 9-11?

• Comparisons and contrasts: Are there similarities between characters and actions in Jesus’s parable and those people he is addressing? Is an ideal exalted to shame and awaken a transformation in a reader’s attitude or behavior?

• Context and continuity: Look at the context to see if there is a continuation of the subject or thought from what goes before the unit. Does the thought or theme continue in the text that follows?

• Cause and effect: Are there connections between someone’s actions or statements and the reactions or responses that follow?

• Repetition: Does the author repeat an idea or a phrase to emphasize a point he considered important for the reader to grasp?

• Progression: Does the story or argument develop and lead to a significant lesson or conclusion?

• Cruciality: Is there one pivotal idea or turning point that is vital to the understanding of the unit?

• Summary: Is there a sentence or paragraph at or near the end that summarizes the thought or activity of the unit?

In addition, we should always remember that when studying the Hebrew and Christian literature of the Old and New Testaments, the original text was not written in English but rather in Hebrew or Greek. Therefore, the English version or translation of the text is an interpretation in the language you are reading. Also, there may be significant terms in the literature that will require some research and reading outside the text to arrive at a fuller understanding of their meaning.

The quest in analysis or exegesis is historical in nature. The question is in the past tense: What did the author mean?

Step 3. Evaluation and Application: What does it mean?

The third step, application, seeks to make connections between what the author said in the historical context and one’s present cultural context. This requires the evaluation of what has been gleaned and learned from the study. What does the story teach that has meaning for every age and other cultures, and especially for this time and present context? This may require meditation and critical reflection upon the theological, spiritual, and ethical implications and for their relevance to the present. The question has now returned to the present tense: What does it mean? In other words, what does the author say to me and others in my world and time? How am I like a character in the story? How does the message relate to the kingdom of God, my faith, and my life?

III. CANONICITY: The Process of Selecting the Books of the New Testament

Question: How were the twenty-seven books of the New Testament chosen to be in the canon when there were so many more early Christian writings? Should the Gospel of Thomas be added to the four gospels in the authoritative collection, which is the source of biblical theology?

Since the Gospel of Thomas was discovered in 1939 among the ancient manuscripts found in the library collection near Nag Hammadi, Egypt, some people have questioned whether the New Testament should have included five gospels instead of four. Why wasn’t the Gospel of Thomas included? However, there were other gospels: Gospel of the Nazaraeans, Gospel of the Hebrews, Gospel of the Egyptians, Gospel of Peter, Gospel of the Twelve Apostles, Gospel of Philip, Gospel of Judas, Gospel of Bartholomew, Gospel of Mary, and more. In addition, it is appropriate to ask why there are thirteen Pauline epistles and two epistles of Peter in the New Testament, while the letters of Clement and Barnabas were omitted.

Clement was either the third or fourth bishop of Rome, apparently identified by Paul in Philippians 4:3, and his correspondence was sent to the church of Corinth between the years AD 75-100. A fifth-century collection of early Christian writings, Codex Alexandrinus, includes all of the First Epistle of Clement and a portion of the Second Epistle of Clement. A fourth-century collection, Codex Sinaiticus, includes the Epistle of Barnabas and The Shepherd of Hermas. This illustrates that in some early Christian circles of the fourth and fifth centuries, certain Christian writings were considered authoritative and canonical, but they were later excluded from the New Testament. On the other hand, the Gospel of Thomas was not considered authoritative by the early church; rather it was called a heterodox gospel by Origen (AD 182-251) and repeated by Jerome (AD 331-420), meaning that it deviated from the teachings of Jesus and the apostles.

The early church concluded that the Gospel of Thomas was unorthodox and heretical, at least in some crucial teachings. Therefore, it was not considered an authoritative source of Christian doctrine, nor was it preserved by the church. The following study of a familiar section of the Gospel of Luke, which has a parallel in the Gospel of Thomas Logia (Saying) 64, will provide the opportunity for making some of the same observations, judgments, and conclusions of the early church.

The Parable of the Great Banquet (Luke 14:15-24; Thomas 64)

Group Study

1. Observation (Step One): What does the author say?

a. Read Luke 14:15-24 (parallel Matt. 22:1-10).

b. Answer the following questions:

(1) Who are the characters in the story?

List of persons in order of appearance:

One of the dinner guests (14:15), i.e. a lawyer or Pharisee dinner guest (14:3)

Jesus (14:16a)

Host of a great dinner, the master, and owner of the house (14:16b, 21, 23)

First invited guests: many (14:16c).

Slave sent to confirm the earlier invitation (14:17)

First guest excuses himself (14:18)

Second guest excuses himself (14:19)

Third guest excuses himself (14:20)

Secondary invited guests: the poor, the crippled, the blind, and the lame (14:21)

Tertiary invited guests: travelers on the roads and lanes (14:23)

(2) Where does the story take place?

Answer: In the house of a leader of the Pharisees (14:1)

(3) When does the story take place?

Answer: While Jesus was dining at the house of a leader of the Pharisees on the Sabbath (14:2). More specifically, Jesus tells the parable in response to a comment by one of the guests relative to the blessed eternal hope of participating in the great banquet in the kingdom of God (14:15).

(4) What is the subject or theme of the story?

Answer: When those who were first invited to the great banquet excused themselves for various reasons, the host revised his invitation list to include the poor, the crippled, the blind, the lame, and those forced to live outside the village.

c. Read Thomas 64 and answer the same questions above.

2. Analysis (Step Two): What did the author mean?

a. Jesus told the parable in Luke 14:16-24 in response to a comment made by a fellow dinner guest in the house of a leader of the Pharisees (14:1).

b. Question: Who were some of the other guests at the Sabbath meal?

Answer: Lawyers and Pharisees

c. Question: What do you know about the dinner host in the parable (Luke 14:16-24)?

Answer: The host invited many guests to a great dinner. The guests RSVP’ed that they were coming, and the host prepared an abundance of food for the feast. The host is a person of status, influence, and wealth in the community who manages a household of servants who call him master or lord.

d. Question: When the final invitation went out to all the invited guests, they "all alike began to make excuses" (Luke 14:18). From the three representative responses, what do you know about the social status of those who were invited?

Answer: Upon receiving and accepting the invitation, the guests had the responsibility to prepare their festive attire and tend to the matters of business for the time of their impending absence. The original guest list included persons of similar status and wealth to that of the host. While all alike excused themselves, Jesus provides three representative responses of those who are preoccupied with their own possessions and priorities.

The first two clearly give evidence of their wealth and property. It is highly unlikely that a person would buy a piece of land without a preview inspection and assessment of its value. The first man appears to be an absentee landowner who lives in the city, and his new acquisition is his prized possession. The second truant has purchased five yoke of oxen, which would be required to farm over one hundred acres of land at that time in Galilee and Judea. Jesus was well aware that most peasant families might farm three to six acres per adult. The man who has just married is likewise more interested in his own personal status and relationship with his new bride than he is in fulfillment of his social obligation to join in the festive banquet.

The failure to keep their agreements by the invited guests serves to embarrass and shame the wealthy host, who is angered by their disrespect and defamation. The banquet is now ready, and he must find others who are willing to come at the last minute.

e. Question: How would you describe those who are then invited and attend the great dinner?

Answer: Earlier at the Sabbath dinner provided by his influential host, Jesus observed that all of those present were family, friends, and rich neighbors of the host (Luke 14:12). His table companions were those who could reciprocate the invitation and perpetuate the insider social club. They were also social climbers, competing for the places of honor and recognition among their elite friends (Luke 14:7).

The host in Jesus’s parable arrives at a dramatic dénouement or transformed solution! He sends his servant to invite and "bring in the poor, the crippled, the blind, and the lame (Luke 14:21). However, the banquet hall still has room for others. The servant is then told to go out into the roads and lanes, and compel people to come in" (Luke 14:23).

The first invitees are those who are marginalized and without social standing due to their family circumstances and/or physical conditions beyond their control. Yes, they may live next door to the host. However, in the past he would not mix with them socially, as they were unworthy of the honor of his recognition.

The second group lives outside the village. For various reasons, they are excluded from social contact in community life. Who might these persons be? They could be Gentiles, traveling merchants, aliens, or perhaps lepers or prostitutes—those who are assumed to be impure by Jewish standards of holiness and discrimination. While the disabled dinner guests must be brought or enabled to attend, it is necessary for the servant to compel those of the roads and lanes to come to the feast. Why? They could not invite the prestigious host to a dinner in return, thus repaying the honor. This was a social stigma, and by compelling these guests to come, a barrier was breached.

f. Question: What then is the point of Jesus’s parable?

Answer: Those who would be so blessed and privileged to eat bread in the kingdom of God will welcome and socialize with all God has invited and who have accepted his invitation to the kingdom feast. All the social barriers have been broken down, and everyone is now welcome.

g. Question: How is the parable in the Gospel of Thomas the same or different from that told by Jesus in the Gospel of Luke?

Answer: First, there are four representative excuses given by the invited guests. This is a means of changing the focus of the parable—transferring the spotlight away from the host to those excusing themselves. The emphasis shifts away from the kingdom of God and the invitation of the host to the nature of the activity that prevents the invited from coming to the great dinner. It is not a matter of priorities but rather the nature of the business itself.

Can an investment banker (first excuse) enter into the fellowship of the people of God? Does Jesus teach that earthly wealth and even the ownership of a house (second excuse) prevents a person from following him? The third excuse is not made by a person who has just been married, but rather the invited person is responsible to host a bachelor party for his friend who is about to be married. When did Jesus condemn marriage or the association with those who are married? The banquet in Thomas excludes not only those who are married but also those who would associate with those so joined in wedlock.

3. Evaluation and Application (Step Three): What does it mean?

a. Conclusion of the Early Church Concerning the Theology of the Gospel of Thomas: Without entering into the problem of authorship—other than to say that the author or compiler of Thomas was not the apostle Thomas, who was also called Didymus or the Twin (John 11:16)—the Gospel of Thomas is thought to have been composed sometime around AD 200. The early Christian scholar Origen (ca. AD 233) refers to Thomas in one of his homilies on Luke, condemning its teachings as heretical. Likewise, the historian Eusebius of Caesarea classifies the Gospel of Thomas as apocrypha of a frankly heterodox character, commended by the heretics under the name of the apostle (W. Schneemelcher, ed., NT Apocrypha [1963], 1:278f).

b. Question: What makes Thomas heretical and excludes it from the New Testament?

Answer: The Gospel of Thomas asserts that Jesus called his disciples to a holy life of celibacy, poverty, and separation from the world. For the Christian community, there is no higher authority than the very sayings of Jesus. However, did Jesus actually teach the 114 wisdom sayings included in the Gospel of Thomas? Yes, Jesus may have said some of those statements; however, were they said with the same meaning? Is the emphasis the same? Are the teachings in harmony with the teachings of the Old Testament and other accepted authoritative sources of the life and teaching of Jesus?

The early church condemned the Gospel of Thomas and other such literature because it taught a form of Gnosticism. If one became a Christian disciple in this Gnostic cult, he should hate and shun the material world, which entices with the desires of the flesh, power, and earthly measures of success. Rather, salvation and holiness are achieved by stoic self-denial, separation, and knowledge, which may be understood and limited to only a small group of persons. Therefore, salvation is not the gracious, loving gift of God to everyone who believes in Jesus Christ, who died on the cross and was raised again on the third day. In fact, a holy God could not become incarnate through the Virgin Mary and thus be contaminated with sinful human flesh, according to their heretical teachings.

c. Conclusion: Without exception Christians today find the last saying in the Gospel of Thomas clearly contrary to the teachings of both the Old and New Testaments:

Simon Peter said to them: Let Mary go forth from among us, for women are not worthy of the life. Jesus said: Behold, I shall lead her, that I may make her male, in order that she also may become a living spirit like you males. For every woman who makes herself male shall enter into the kingdom of heaven (Logion 114).

This religious cult was open to celibate men, and it excluded women, as well as the buyers and merchants.

IV. CANONICITY—The Criteria for Selecting the Books of the New Testament

A. Question: If the Gospel of Thomas was rejected and excluded from the New Testament by the early church, what criteria served as the standard of authority for this judgment?

Answer: This is a challenging question, as church history is virtually silent as to how, when, and by whom it was brought about.¹ The answers must be gleaned from various sources—including the twenty-seven books of the New Testament, the evolving canon lists, the resolutions of the early church councils, and the writings of the Church Fathers.

B. Define the term canon.

Answer: The word canon refers to a standard of measurement. For example, if one is building a house with eight-foot ceilings, the studs must be eight feet in length. The measurement can be made with a tape measure or another piece of lumber that is known to be of that length. To determine whether a wall is level or a water line has an adequate slope, a level is used. The measuring devices are used to determine whether an established standard is satisfied. It appears that four criteria served as the standard whereby the twenty-seven books of the New Testament were evaluated and selected to become the authoritative rule of Christian faith and practice—the Christian canon of truth and orthodoxy.

The four criteria below are given in what appear to have been the order of importance to the early church.

C. Question: By what criteria were the twenty-seven books of the New Testament selected by the early church for inclusion in the Christian canon?

First Criterion: Content—Is the book consistent with the law and the prophets and the life and teaching of Jesus?

The first criterion of assessment has to do with the theological nature of a book’s content. Do the teachings form a continuum in harmony with the truth and principles found in the law and the prophets and in the life and teaching of Jesus?

Jesus said, Do not think that I have come to abolish the law or the prophets; I have come not to abolish but to fulfill. For truly I tell you, until heaven and earth pass away, not one letter, not one stroke of a letter, will pass from the law until all is accomplished (Matt. 5:17-18; cf. Luke 16:17). Unlike some of the Jews who esteemed the Law of Moses more highly than the writings of the prophets, Jesus considered them to be of equal importance and authority. In fact, according to Jesus’s parable of the rich man and Lazarus, a person would require nothing more than the books of Moses and the prophets to come to faith in God and experience the salvation of one’s soul (Luke 16:29, 31).

The life and teaching of Jesus form the ultimate standard for Christian truth and theology. What did Jesus say? What would Jesus do? Therefore, the early preaching and writing of the apostles preserved and passed on the very words of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles states, "[The first disciples] devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers" (Acts 2:42). On one hand, the life and teaching of Jesus Christ is the foundation of the church (1 Cor. 3:11), and on the other hand, this foundation or cornerstone has been laid by the apostles and prophets (Eph. 2:20; 1 Cor. 3:10). Since Jesus did not put his words into print, the church is dependent upon the eyewitness testimony and the trustworthy teaching of the Apostolic Fathers.

The gospels and apostolic correspondence collected and preserved in the New Testament canon serve as the rule or norm for Christian truth and life. They define orthodoxy or the commonly held theological opinions of the church through the ages. There may have been other documents that were quite faithful to the life and teaching of Jesus; however, it appears that the early church included and preserved the best—that which may be called classical Christian literature.

Second Criterion: Authorship—Is the author an Apostle or someone who had a sustained relationship with an Apostle so as to confer apostolic authority?

Since none of the four canonical gospels includes the name of the author, the writer is known by means of tradition, external attestation, and internal evidence. By this means, the sources are known as Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Matthew and John were numbered among the twelve apostles (Mark 3:17-18).

On the other hand, Mark (a.k.a. John Mark), who is believed to be the author of the second gospel, was not an apostle. He was the son of Mary, in whose house the early Christians gathered in Jerusalem (Acts 12:12, 25), the cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10), and traveling companion of Barnabas and Paul (Acts 13:13). John Mark appears to have been well known throughout the churches in Asia Minor, as Peter includes a greeting from Mark to the churches in his epistle (1 Peter 5:13). Eusebius (ca. 260-341), the early church historian, cites a quotation in the writings of Papias, bishop of Hierapolis (ca. 120-130), that recalls the words of an elder, Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately whatsoever he remembered. It was not, however, in exact order that he related the sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said, he accompanied Peter (Fragments of Papias: Oracles, 6.155; Eusebius, Eccl. Hist., 3.19.15). Because Peter was considered to be the source of what Mark wrote, the gospel was recognized as having apostolic authority. Although second in the canon, Mark is generally considered the first gospel written.

Luke, like Mark, was not one of the apostles of Jesus or an eyewitness; in fact, he may have been a Gentile having a more cosmopolitan perspective. However, he is believed to be the fellow worker and regular companion of Paul (Philem. 1:23-24; 2 Tim. 4:11-12; Acts 16:10-17; et al.) and the beloved physician (Col. 4:14) mentioned in the Pauline writings. Luke states in the preface that the third gospel is based upon the traditional testimony of eyewitnesses, the preaching of the apostles, and careful research on his part (Luke 1:3). Again, the apostles who were still alive and the early church affirmed the authenticity and authority of Luke’s gospel. The Latin theologian Tertullian (ca. 150-225) summarized the gospel selection criterion for us, "The Four Gospels of our Lord are the instrumentum evangelicum, and their authors are either Apostles or companions and disciples of Apostles" (Metzger, Canon of NT, 159; cf. Tertullian, Adv. Marc., 4.1).

Although Paul was not one of the twelve apostles and he did not encounter Jesus in the flesh (Gal. 1:11-12), it was recognized early that Paul wrote his letters primarily to Gentile believers. As the number of Gentile believers in Asia Minor and the West quickly outnumbered the Messianic Jews, it was crucial that the gospel of Jesus be interpreted and made relevant to the former pagans of the Roman Empire. The value of Paul’s letters was recognized early as authoritative, which is witnessed in the Second Epistle of Peter, Our beloved brother Paul wrote to you according to the wisdom given him… . There are some things in them hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruction, as they do the other scriptures (2 Peter 3:15-16). The Pauline corpus was accepted early as scripture.

The authorship of the New Testament books was granted the same value and authority for Christian teaching as that given to the Old Testament Law and Prophets. The author of 2 Peter writes, I am trying to arouse your sincere intention by reminding you that you should remember the words spoken in the past by the holy prophets, and the commandment of the Lord and Savior spoken through your apostles (3:1-2).

Third Criterion: Catholicity—Is there a general or universal recognition among the churches affirming the value of a book for teaching Christian faith and obedience?

The early believers assembled on the first day of the week, continuing to worship in a pattern similar to that of the Jewish synagogues. They sang hymns, listened to the reading of scripture, which was followed by an exposition of the reading in a sermon, received the sacrament of the Lord’s supper, and prayed (cf. Acts 2:42; 1Cor. 14:26). The reading of scripture in worship included a systematic reading of the law and the prophets, which the Christian assemblies expanded to include the reading of the letters of Paul and the gospels (Col. 4:16; 2 Cor. 3:15). Paul exhorted Timothy to be faithful in this tradition and practice: Until I arrive, give attention to the public reading of scripture, to exhorting, to teaching (1 Tim. 4:13).

Therefore the third criterion has similarities to a Gallup Poll. How many or what percentage of the churches in Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy are collecting and reading specific early Christian writings in their Lord’s Day worship? While there was early, universal acceptance of the four gospels and the thirteen Pauline letters, 1 Peter, 1 John, Acts, and Revelation, there was not an immediate catholic or universal endorsement of 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Hebrews, James, and Jude. In addition, some local communions were including readings from the Shepherd of Hermas, The Teaching of the Twelve (Didache), and the Letter of Barnabas.

The theologian and prolific Bible scholar Origen of Alexandria (ca. 182-251) traveled widely, visiting and corresponding with many of the churches and their leaders in the third century. He summarized the state of the canon as has been reported in the foregoing paragraph and expressed reservations about 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Hebrews, James, and Jude. He also joined the collection of the gospels and apostles under the name of the New Testament. This just and good God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, himself gave the law and the prophets, and the gospels, being also the God of the apostles and of the Old and New Testaments (Origen, De Principiis: Preface, 4). Origen, like other leaders in the early church, considered all the books of the canon—both Old and New Testament—to have a common source, and they were held to be of equal value for instruction in Christian doctrine.

Fourth Criterion: Inspiration—Is the reader and/or listener made aware of the spirit and truth of God?

The fourth criterion is the broadest of all, and it hopefully characterizes and endorses this study, as well as a multitude of sermons being preached this week. However, not all that God inspires meets the foregoing criteria (i.e., content, authorship, and catholicity), which would make it worthy of inclusion in the Christian canon of Holy Scripture. These were the broad and narrow views of inspiration in the early church, First of all you must understand this, that no prophecy of scripture is a matter of one’s own interpretation, because no prophecy ever came by human will, but men and women moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God (2 Peter 1:20-21). Therefore, inspiration may be defined as the breath of God—i.e., the act or power of the Holy Spirit moving the intellect and emotions of the speaker, the reader, and the listener to recognize and acknowledge the revelation of God’s presence and truth. When the scripture is read, God speaks, and his people respond in obedience.

V. CONCLUSION—NEW TESTAMENT CANON OF HOLY SCRIPTURE

A. Question: How long did it take for the New Testament canon to become an authoritative collection of twenty-seven books?

Answer: New Testament biblical theology is the study of the theological teachings found in the various Christian writings of canonical scripture. The twenty-seven books, which we know to be grouped into the gospels, history, letters, and prophecy, became a finalized and authoritative library in the Eastern Church at the Synod of Laodicea in 363. This was affirmed by Athanasius’s 39th Festal Epistle in 367. In the West, the final formation of the canon was heavily influence by Jerome and Augustine, and the canon as we know it was adopted by the synods in Hippo (393) and Carthage (397) (Metzger, 236-238).

B. Question: What are the five literary divisions of the New Testament, and what are the books included in each division?

Answer:

Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John

History of the Church: Acts of the Apostles

Pauline Letters or Epistles: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon

General Letters or Epistles: Hebrews, James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1, 2 and 3 John, Jude

Prophecy or Apocalypse: Revelation

C. Question: Why is this studyof New Testament canonicity important for Christian faith and life today?

¹ Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the NT (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987) 1.

The Theology of the Four Gospels—Study 2

INTRODUCTION: CONTEXTUALIZATION

The Bible consists of sixty-six books in the Protestant canon—thirty-nine Hebrew books and twenty-seven Christian books.¹ The canonization process is a story extending to near the end of the fourth century of the early church. Since that time, this collection of literature has served Christian believers as the final authority in matters of faith and obedience. However, this does not mean that there has been unanimous agreement in what the Bible teaches.

Question: In review of the first study, why are there diverse theological interpretations of specific biblical texts that in some cases have contributed not only to conflicts in the body of Christ but also to the creation of new denominations?

As was suggested in the first study, differences of interpretation are sometimes influenced by one’s culture (e.g., ethnicity, political, social, economic, and religious background), critical knowledge (educational background in history, literature, language, natural abilities, life experiences, and age), and character (moral values, belief in the supernatural, human immortality, accountability, rational choices, and spiritual maturity).

Common errors in interpretation also occur when statements or phrases are taken literally when they were meant to be understood figuratively. Jesus said, Those who eat my flesh and drink my blood have eternal life (John 6:54). Most Protestants understand this figuratively. Thus to them the bread and cup at the Lord’s Table are powerful reminders—a sign of the Lord’s passion and death on the cross for all humanity, and a solemn seal to the faith of everyone who believes. The very spirit of Christ is present at the table. Roman Catholics, on the other hand, take Jesus’s words quite literally, and for that reason they believe that in the act of consecration, while the elements remain bread and wine in appearance, the essence is transformed, becoming the very body and blood of Christ.

Jesus also said, If your right eye causes you to sin, tear it out and throw it away; it is better for you to lose one of your members than for your whole body to be thrown into hell. And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away; it is better for you to lose one of your members than for your whole body to go into hell (Matt. 5:29-30; cf. Mark 9:43-47). Tragically, some persons have interpreted these words of Jesus literally, and they have mutilated and abused their bodies. Certainly the eye, hand, and foot (Mark 9:43-47) can be the initial causes of scandal and sin. However, are these words of Jesus a literal command? Or is Jesus demanding a form of radical restraint and control of one’s eye, hand, and foot—guarding a person from those temptations that can lead to immoral consequences and ultimately to an eternal hell? If these words were to be taken literally, then the church would be populated with the blind and disabled, whereas Jesus calls his disciples to a life of joy, fulfillment, and wholeness.

Other mistakes of interpretation occur when a person looks for too many meanings in the figurative language, symbols, and especially in the parables of Jesus. It helps to ask a question, What did the original speaker or writer mean in his culture and historical context? Caution is also appropriate when a person is tempted to claim a particular promise in the Bible as his or her own, when the original promise has been given to someone else. This also can lead to disappointment and sometimes a tragic end.

Biblical theology is not about you! It is about the text! What did the original speaker or author mean when he or she spoke or wrote the words found in the biblical text? It is of vital importance to understand the meaning of a text in its historical culture, literary context, and whenever possible, original language. Since most people do not know Hebrew or Greek, they are dependent upon a critical, scholarly translation, which is the result of teams of scholars skilled in languages, literature, history, archaeology, and the social setting of the text. The resulting translation is not the interpretation of one person, but rather a system of checks and balances has resulted in a very reliable and authoritative text. It is for this reason that the English Bible in the New Revised Standard Version or the New International Version is highly recommended for these studies in biblical theology.

There is no better way to learn how to do biblical theology than to tackle a contemporary controversial issue, which has divided some Christian communions: Does the New Testament forbid or authorize the ordination of women as elders, presbyters, and senior ministers in the church?

I. PROBLEM: WOMEN IN MINISTRY?

A. Question: Does the New Testament forbid or authorize the ordination of women as elders, presbyters, and senior ministers in the church?

B. Read the following paragraphs, which are found in Paul’s letters to first-century churches and pastors: 1 Corinthians 14:34-35; 1 Timothy 2:11-15; 1 Corinthians 11:2-16; Galatians 3:28.

1. Women are to learn in silence in church and are forbidden to have authority over a man:

Let a woman learn in silence with full submission. I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she is to keep silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor. Yet she will be saved through childbearing, provided they continue in faith and love and holiness, with modesty (1 Tim. 2:11-15).

Women should be silent in the churches. For they are not permitted to speak, but should be subordinate, as the law also says. If there is anything they desire to know, let them ask their husbands at home. For it is shameful for a woman to speak in church (1 Cor. 14:34-35).

2. Women pray and prophesy (teach/preach) with their heads covered in Corinth:

I commend you because you remember me in everything and maintain the traditions just as I handed them on to you. But I want you to understand that Christ is the head of every man, and the husband is the head of his wife, and God is the head of Christ. Any man who prays or prophesies with something on his head disgraces his head, but any woman who prays or prophesies with her head unveiled disgraces her head—it is one and the same thing as having her head shaved. For if a woman will not veil herself, then she should cut off her hair; but if it is disgraceful for a woman to have her hair cut off or to be shaved, she should wear a veil. For a man ought not to have his head veiled, since he is the image and reflection of God; but woman is the reflection of man. Indeed, man was not made from woman, but woman from man. Neither was man created for the sake of woman, but woman for the sake of man. For this reason a woman ought to have a symbol of authority on her head, because of the angels. Nevertheless, in the Lord woman is not independent of man or man independent of woman. For just as woman came from man, so man comes through woman; but all things come from God. Judge for yourselves: is it proper for a woman to pray to God with her head unveiled? Does not nature itself teach you that if a man wears long hair, it is degrading to him, but if a woman has long hair, it is her glory? For her hair is given to her for a covering. But if anyone is disposed to be contentious—we have no such custom, nor do the churches of God (1 Cor. 11:2-16).

3. Gender distinctions are without merit and nullified in Christ, who has removed the dividing walls, stigmas, and prejudice among the believing people of God:

There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus (Gal. 3:28).

C. Question: How do you harmonize 1 Corinthians 14:34-35 and 1 Timothy 2:11-15 with 1 Corinthians 11:2-16 and Galatians 3:28?

II. PRINCIPLES OF THEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION

A. First Principle: Review the resolution of the First Council of Jerusalem in AD 49 (Acts 15:19-20, 25, 28-29).

1. A crisis had been created by church growth among the Gentiles:

• Conversion and baptism of Cornelius and his household, relatives, and friends (Acts 10:24, 27, 44-48; 11:14).

• Conversion of a great number of Hellenists at Antioch (Acts 11:20-21, 24c).

• Conversion of Gentiles in Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:48).

• Conversion of a great number of Greeks in Iconium (Acts 14:1).

• Report of Paul and Barnabas to the Church at Antioch: God… opened a door of faith for the Gentiles (Acts 14:27).

2. Issue: Jewish teachers from Judea reproached the Gentiles in Antioch, Syria, insisting that they become circumcised and keep the Law of Moses in order to be saved, which caused a major dissension and debate among the Christian believers (Acts 15:1, 5).

3. Paul and Barnabas were commissioned by the church in Antioch, Syria, to go up to Jerusalem to discuss this question with the apostles and the elders (Acts 15:2).

4. Peter corroborated the testimony of Paul and Barnabas, reporting his own experiences