The Divine Comedy

By Dante Alighieri, Gustave Doré and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

“O human race, born to fly upward, wherefore at a little wind dost thou so fall?”

Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso--the three fates of the deceased become the three pillars of an epic poem. The Divine Comedy, written by Italian poet Dante Alighieri in the fourteenth century, is considered the foremost work in Italian literature. The journey begins with Dante’s descent into the depths of Hell where he witnesses those eternally separated from God. Then he climbs the mountain of Purgatory where Christian souls undergo final purification, before finally touring the celestial circles of Heaven where he is filled with the image of God. An allegorical work, the comedy is representative of the soul’s journey towards God. Influential for seven centuries, this classic is a must have for lovers of great literature.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Canterbury Classics
• Release date: Oct 1, 2013
• ISBN: 9781607109983

Dante Alighieri

Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) was an Italian poet. Born in Florence, Dante was raised in a family loyal to the Guelphs, a political faction in support of the Pope and embroiled in violent conflict with the opposing Ghibellines, who supported the Holy Roman Emperor. Promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati at the age of 12, Dante had already fallen in love with Beatrice Portinari, whom he would represent as a divine figure and muse in much of his poetry. After fighting with the Guelph cavalry at the Battle of Campaldino in 1289, Dante returned to Florence to serve as a public figure while raising his four young children. By this time, Dante had met the poets Guido Cavalcanti, Lapo Gianni, Cino da Pistoia, and Brunetto Latini, all of whom contributed to the burgeoning aesthetic movement known as the dolce stil novo, or “sweet new style.” The New Life (1294) is a book composed of prose and verse in which Dante explores the relationship between romantic love and divine love through the lens of his own infatuation with Beatrice. Written in the Tuscan vernacular rather than Latin, The New Life was influential in establishing a standardized Italian language. In 1302, following the violent fragmentation of the Guelph faction into the White and Black Guelphs, Dante was permanently exiled from Florence. Over the next two decades, he composed The Divine Comedy (1320), a lengthy narrative poem that would bring him enduring fame as Italy’s most important literary figure.

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Introduction

Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy is not only one of the most influential works in the Western canon of literature, but an invaluable document of medieval mentality. Inspired by the Roman poet Virgil’s epic poem the Aeneid, by the medieval theology epitomized by St. Thomas Aquinas, and by the turbulent times he himself lived through, Dante wove an intricate tapestry of society, sin, and redemption, crafted as a travelogue through heaven and hell. It is one of the classics of world literature, and one whose influence continues today. Even in our secular and scientific world, the Comedy—and especially the first part, Inferno—serves as a cultural touchstone, cited in movies, comic books, video games, and literature.

The Divine Comedy was translated into English as early as the fourteenth century—Chaucer makes reference to Dante’s work—but one of the most notable attempts was by the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Longfellow’s work is not only a translation—a difficult achievement at the best of times—but an attempt at that most impossible of tasks, to faithfully render poetry from one language into a similar style of verse in another. Here we present the Longfellow translation not only as a way of giving Dante’s work to an English-speaking audience, but also, since such a work is as much the translator’s as the original poet’s, as a sample of the oeuvre of this justly renowned American poet.

Dante’s World

Dante was born in 1265 in the city of Florence, in the north-central Italian region of Tuscany. At the time, Florence was a rich trading and banking center, and was especially known in the wool trade for its fine dyes. Much of the wealth of the late Middle Ages flowed through Florentine coffers. It was a town in the middle of social ferment, as the up-and-coming merchant and financier classes replaced the nobility in town government. Finally, it was a growing power in Italy, eager to use its wealth to exert dominance over its neighbors.

Italy in Dante’s day was more of a geographical idea than anything else. Besides differences in regional dialects, the political situation—to modern eyes—seems to have been one of near-anarchy. The southern end of the peninsula, up to the region of Rome, was the least complicated—at first a unified kingdom (Sicily), and then, after a revolt in 1282, two kingdoms (Naples and Sicily). However, the north was divided into numerous fiercely independent city-states and petty despotisms. Meanwhile, the central area around Rome was ruled by the pope (when he was strong), and by the bickering Roman nobility (when he was not). After 1309, the pope was no longer a factor, since the papacy was moved to Avignon in France until 1378.

To make things even more confusing, the ruler of what would later become Germany—who, for various convoluted reasons, had the title of Holy Roman Emperor—had a historical claim on northern Italy. In reality, the emperor was neither holy nor Roman nor the ruler of an empire, but rather the head of a loose confederation of German princes who claimed a bombastic title that had originated with Charlemagne. However, after the princes appointed a new emperor, he still had to be crowned in Rome, and occasionally a particular ambitious ruler would try to claim his rights in Italy. Thus, two parties or factions emerged in medieval Italy: the Ghibellines, or those who supported the emperor, and the Guelfs, who nominally backed the pope to counterbalance the emperor, but many of whom were really for local autonomy.

In reality, no Holy Roman Emperor had enough money or political support to actually conquer Italy, but this hardly mattered; the Guelf/Ghibelline conflict became sublimated into the various rivalries and factional conflicts between and within the Italian cities. Much like modern gangs, the two sides distinguished themselves by different badges and mannerisms, some of them as trivial as cutting fruit in a certain way or wearing a feather on one side of their hats or the other. The Guelf/Ghibelline conflict came to a head in 1289, when the Guelfs defeated the Ghibellines in two battles. Dante himself fought in one of these, the Battle of Campaldino. Having achieved victory, the Florentine Guelfs divided into Black and White factions, the former supporting the pope, and the latter for greater autonomy. Dante found himself caught up in this political struggle, with grave results.

Dante’s Life

We cannot be sure of many details of Dante’s life. Even his birthdate of 1265 is speculation, taken from the fact that he mentions that he was midway upon the journey of our life in the first lines of his poem, which he sets on Maundy Thursday of 1300, and that the usual life span as given in the Bible and understood in the Middle Ages was seventy years, meaning that he was born about thirty-five years earlier. We do know that his father, Alighiero di Bellincione, was a White Guelf. Dante’s mother died when he was ten, and his father remarried (or partnered to) Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi. Dante’s half-brother and half-sister came from this union.

Dante’s family was evidently well-off, and saw to it that he received an excellent education. If this followed the pattern that was typical of his time, he would have first received instruction in Latin, and then in logic and public speaking. After this, he would have learned arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. His writing shows that he also had more than a passing familiarity with theology and Latin literature, especially the orator Cicero. He also read the Greek philosopher Aristotle in translation. The medieval world had rediscovered the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans and was busily incorporating them, as well as Arabic philosophy, into its worldview. For Italians, this rediscovery of antiquity helped build a sense of pride in their cultural heritage—a movement that would later come to be called humanism. Dante’s interest in Cicero’s political writings and Virgil’s poetry would help to spark this revival of ancient culture.

Dante also read the poets of the dolce stil novo, the sweet new style, who modeled their Italian verses on the troubadours of southern France. The troubadours’ subject was, unsurprisingly, love—often unapologetically sexual love. One example is Arnaut Daniel, whom Dante places (speaking his native language of Occitan) in the Purgatorio, serving time for lust. Surprisingly, this carnal love came to be melded with Christian theology, which had been highly influenced by Plato’s philosophies through Church fathers such as St. Augustine. It is by meditating on the beloved, this line of thought goes, that we desire that which is good, which is in turn identified with God. This strain of thought is found in Italian poetry such as that of the mid-thirteenth century poet Guido Guinizzelli, one of Dante’s influences, who used medical and astronomical language to celebrate his love. However, to the medieval mind, all paths to the truth lead to God, who is himself love.

It was at the age of nine, Dante tells us in his autobiographical poem La Vita Nuova, that he met his own inspiration: a girl, one year younger than himself, named Beatrice Portinari. He was instantly smitten. Dante says that he did not see Beatrice again until he was eighteen, but she would remain Dante’s muse throughout his life. Theirs was not a love of the flesh: Beatrice, the daughter of a banker, married another banker named Simone dei Bardi, while at the age of twelve, Dante was himself engaged to Gemma di Manetto Donati. Such a young betrothal was not uncommon for the children of powerful families, and the contract made between their fathers was considered legally binding. Dante and Gemma would have married in 1285, when Dante was twenty, and we know that she bore him at least four children. Yet, Dante never once mentions Gemma in his poetry, though both Beatrice and a woman named Gentucca (whom he lived with in Lucca) find a place in his verses.

Beatrice died in 1290 at the young age of twenty-four. This did not end Dante’s love for her; she appears in his poetry, including the Divine Comedy, as his guide to the divine, as his intercessor, as the thing that made him strive to be a good person. In reality, she probably never said more to him in person than a few polite greetings. In a modern context, this obsession seems somewhat pathetic, even demented. However, in a medieval context, it is much less so. For Dante and Beatrice to have interacted in the society of thirteenth-century Florence, where a family’s honor was equivalent to the virtue of its women, would have been unthinkable. Likewise, young people had little choice in whom to marry: both of their marriages had been contracted for practical reasons and to cement family alliances. Dante’s courtly love for Beatrice was a secret admiration that he used almost as a private meditative practice, and Beatrice in Dante’s mind was all that the real Beatrice could never be—something akin to a personal patron saint.

Beatrice’s death was not the only misfortune to befall the young Dante. After the Guelf victory at Campaldino, a law was passed requiring men who wanted to participate in politics to be a member of a guild; in 1295 Dante joined the apothecaries (who also sold books) and began a career in public service. This era coincided with increasing tension between the Black and White Guelfs, with the Blacks wanting the pope to take an active role in Florence’s affairs and the Whites wanting independence. In 1301 Dante, a White, was sent on a diplomatic mission to Rome to ask the pope what his intentions were. As a bonus, Pope Boniface VIII had declared that the year 1300 was a jubilee, in which the sins of pilgrims to Rome would be forgiven. During Dante’s journey, however, the Blacks seized power, tried Dante in absentia, and condemned him to two years’ exile, with his readmission to the city contingent on his paying a large fine. However, since the Blacks had also seized Dante’s property, he could not have paid the fine even if he wished to. Dante was thus condemned to perpetual exile; if he returned to Florence, he would have been burned at the stake. Not surprisingly, many Blacks found themselves in hell in the Inferno!

Bitter though his exile was, it was also fruitful. Dante traveled between various city-states and the courts of Italian rulers, who supported him as a scholar, diplomat, administrator, and man of letters. It was also during these years that he wrote his greatest literary works.

Writing in the Vernacular

We do not know when Dante began writing poetry, but he was certainly doing so by his late teens. His La Vita Nuova (The New Life), set down in its final form in about 1295, contains poetry and prose dating back to 1283. This book is Dante’s first attempt at doing something new in the literary world, transforming the courtly love genre into something purer and more philosophical.

Dante also wrote works in Latin, including letters, poetry, a philosophical-scientific treatise on water and earth, and an interesting work on political theory. Disgusted with the infighting of his White Guelf allies and despairing of ever seeing his native city again, Dante seized upon the new emperor, Henry VII, as the hope for Italy. Henry had marched into Italy in 1310, and promptly set about subduing the peninsula to his will—though he would die of malaria three years later, and his gains would not outlast his death. In his De Monarchia (On Monarchy), Dante asked what the relationship between the secular government and religious authority should be. His answer was that a single ruling power, independent from the Church but nonetheless reverent toward it, should rule the world. In answering this question in this way, Dante went against popular beliefs of his time, which held that the Church and prince wielded separate but complementary swords, and especially against Boniface VIII, who held that the pope’s authority was superior to that of the secular ruler. Dante thus became a precocious advocate of the modern secular state. Later, Dante placed Henry in heaven in the Paradiso, saying that he came to reform Italy before the nation was ready for it.

In his groundbreaking De Vulgari Eloquentia, a treatise on the eloquence of the vernacular, Dante made a learned defense for writing in Italian instead of in scholarly Latin. Writing in national languages was considered a lower form of literature in the Middle Ages; after all, unlike Latin, vernaculars changed over time, and were rarely studied or understood by nonnative speakers. So why did Dante write the Divine Comedy, as well as philosophical works such as his Convivio (Banquet), in the vernacular? His answer is that the common language is the more noble one, the one in which people are most fluent, and thus the best vehicle for our thoughts, and that what matters is the message in a work, not the language.

Dante’s thoughts on the vernacular had important consequences. His literary elevation of the Tuscan dialect did more than anything else to create the standard, modern Italian language. Furthermore, it planted a seed that would begin to flower in the Renaissance—pride in an elevated national language, spread through works of literature that belong uniquely to a people. Furthermore, Dante, like many Italians, took pride in Italy’s ancient Roman heritage, and as a White Guelf, he also took pride in Florence as an independent city free from an overreaching Church. This sense of a common past, spread through literature (and, later, the printing press), began not only a literary and elevated form of Italian, but also a sense of nationalism.

In 1321, shortly after completing the third and final part of the Comedy, the Paradiso, Dante died in Ravenna at the age of fifty-six—probably of malaria he had contracted while on a diplomatic mission to Venice. He was survived by his children and by a body of work already known throughout Italy. Though his Florentine contemporaries had feared to praise the exiled Dante, the city would eventually come to regret shunning its exiled son. A tomb was built for him in Florence in 1829. Yet the sepulchre remains empty, for even though his exile was rescinded by the Florentine town council in 2008, the Ravennese have steadfastly refused to give up the remains of the man who, by discovering the beauty of his native language, had become treasured not just by Florence—or even by Italy—but by the whole world.

Dante’s Cosmology

To understand the three parts of the Divine Comedy, we need to understand both Dante’s physical and spiritual worldviews. The two were not mutually exclusive, but part of an all-encompassing medieval theory of the universe.

Let’s first begin with Dante’s cosmology. In the medieval view, taken from Aristotle and best expressed by the Roman astronomer and geographer Ptolemy, the earth is at the center of the universe. The sun, moon, planets, and stars are all fixed to nested spheres which revolve at different speeds, causing the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies. These all depend on the unseen primum mobile, which influences all lower movements. Outside of this outermost heavenly sphere is God, the Unmoved Mover, all-knowing, all-seeing, and eternal.

This was more than a physical model—it was a moral one. According to Aristotle, heavy things naturally sink toward the center of the universe (that is, the center of the earth), while light ones float. The planets and stars are therefore made of finer, more sublime matter than the stuff of the earth. The same applies to souls: those heavy with sin sink below (inferno literally means that which is below), while virtuous ones are light and ascend to heaven. This is seen in the Dream of Scipio, a passage from Cicero’s De Re Publica (On the Republic)—with which Dante was certainly familiar—in which the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus is raptured up to the heavens, where he hears the music of the heavenly spheres and learns that the reward for earthly virtue is to spend eternity as a star. This message—that the virtuous dead go to heaven—was easily Christianized, and even today, we call someone who has transcended the run of normal humanity a star.

Like his cosmology, Dante’s ideas of sin are hierarchical, organized, and categorized. In this, his moral worldview closely mirrors that of the great medieval theologians, St. Thomas Aquinas. We can perhaps graph them along two axes. The first is who the sin hurts, shading from self to others to all of society to God himself. We can call the second axis that of nature: those sins which arise from the overgratification of natural appetites, such as gluttony and lust, are the least sinful, while hoarding, which is gluttony taken to the extreme of depriving others, and sodomy (that is, homosexual behavior), which medieval people saw as unnatural, are worse than mere overindulgence in the pleasures of the flesh.

The greatest sins, to Dante, are those that hurt the fabric of society. Sinning against the self is not as harmful as sinning against other people. Thus, suicide, which harms only the self, is the least awful of the forms of violence. Murdering other people is worse, and heresy—the crime of anger against God—is even worse. The worst of all are those who sow discord and those who overthrow the rightful structure of the world. Thus, traitors are in the lowest circle of hell, with the three greatest betrayers in the three mouths of Satan himself—Brutus, Cassius, and Judas, two for Caesar and one for Christ.

Structure of the Inferno

The Inferno begins with a midlife crisis. In the jubilee year of 1300, Dante finds himself in the middle of his life lost in a dark wood. There, he is confronted by three animals—a leopard, a lion, and a wolf, symbolizing fraud, pride, and greed. (These sins will later be mirrored in the various layers of hell.) Unable to find the straight path to salvation, Dante is rescued by the Roman poet Virgil, who has been summoned by Beatrice to help him. In the Middle Ages, Virgil was more than the epitome of elegant Latin—the Aeneid was thought to be divinely inspired, even prophetic. Moreover, Virgil’s hero, Aeneas, visited the underworld, and the Divine Comedy is modeled on the Aeneid. Virgil will serve as Dante’s guide through hell and purgatory.

Dante and Virgil enter the gates of hell (on which are famously written Abandon All Hope, Ye Who Enter Here) and cross the river Acheron, ferried by Charon. After traveling through the atheists and cowards—who, not having committed themselves to any faith at all, are not even allowed into hell—they enter through the vestibule and descend into the first of the nine circles of hell. Dante’s infernal geography is conceived as a terraced pit organized into nine levels. In the first, the Elysian Fields, the virtuous pagans of antiquity and modern times, such as Aristotle, Saladin, and Virgil himself, reside. This is a pleasant enough place, though; not having been baptized or able to conceive of a greater good than what they could arrive at through their own reason, these damned souls are condemned never to have the true sight of God.

After passing King Minos, who is depicted as a monster who flings the damned who actively sinned into the level of the pit of hell that their faults merit, Dante and Virgil enter the Second Circle, which is the first occupied by those who actively sinned. This is the domain of the sin of lust. Here, Dante and Virgil find famous lovers such as Tristan and Isolde, as well as Francesca da Rimini, who committed adultery with her brother-in-law. They are punished by being buffeted about by winds, as in life they allowed passion to blow them away from the path of reason.

In the Third Circle, the gluttonous are forced to reside in filthy slush while being pounded by icy rain, guarded by Cerberus, a three-headed monster. Their selfish indulgence is symbolized by each lying, blind, cold, and senseless of their neighbor. Dante speaks with a Florentine named Ciacco (hog). The Fourth Circle is guarded by Pluto, ancient god of wealth, but the greedy who are damned there to push around huge weights are not even capable of speaking to Dante. Instead, he and Virgil discourse on fortune.

From the sins of the leopard, of unregulated natural passions, we pass to the sins of the lion—those of pride. In the Fifth Circle, we find the wrathful, such as the Black Guelf Filippo Argenti, who took the exiled Dante’s worldly possessions. Dante and Virgil then have to pass through the walls of the city of Dis, which they are allowed to do by the intervention of an angel sent from heaven. Oddly enough, heretics, who are angry with God, are the damned souls whom Dante and Virgil find in the Sixth Circle. A number of prominent Florentines are among them; Dante’s conversations with these men allow a detailed discussion of the politics of his native city.

Reaching the lower levels of hell necessitates climbing down a steep cliff. The Seventh Circle is composed of three rings and is guarded by the Minotaur. First are those who have been violent against property; they are immersed in a river of boiling blood and fire, while centaurs shoot arrows at any who emerge more than they are allowed. Next are the suicides and spendthrifts, who were violent by doing harm to themselves. They have been transformed into twisted bushes and trees. Finally are those who were violent against God and nature—blasphemers, who were violent against God; usurers, who unnaturally sought to make money reproduce; and sodomites, who were violent against nature’s scheme for the proper use of the sexual organs. They are forced to respectively lie, sit, and wander aimlessly about the burning sands.

Geryon, a monster combining a beautiful human head with a bestial, reptilian body, carries Dante and Virgil down to the Eighth Circle, where the fraudulent are punished in bolgia, or pockets. These include pimps and seducers, flatterers, those who committed simony (selling Church offices), sorcerers and fortune-tellers, corrupt politicians, hypocrites, thieves, evil counselors, sewers of discord, and miscellaneous liars and cheats. As with the other levels, these begin with those who falsify the natural appetites, and end with those who destroy the structure of society itself through their activities.

In the frozen ninth circle, guarded by giants, we find the treacherous—the worst sin in the medieval worldview, which held that keeping faith is the foundation of society. Theirs are the sins of the wolf, or of malice. These include traitors against their families, those who betrayed their countries, those who betrayed their guests, and, finally, those who betrayed their lords and benefactors. In the very center of the earth, in the middle of hell, we find Satan, a giant, terrifying, hairy beast with three different-colored faces, chewing on the three worst traitors of all—Brutus, Cassius, and Judas.

Structure of the Purgatorio

To continue onward, Dante and Virgil are forced to climb down Satan’s filthy pelt. Gravity reverses as they pass through the center of the earth, and they find themselves climbing upward. Just before dawn the day before Easter Sunday, they emerge in a sky studded with strange stars. They are in Purgatory, a mountain located in the Southern Hemisphere, antipodal from Jerusalem, the navel of the world. This region, created by earth displaced by Satan’s fall, is the exact counterpart of the structure of hell.

However, as opposed to the Inferno, to which souls are confined for all eternity, Purgatory is a place of purification, where one creeps slowly toward divine light. While first mentioned in Catholic theology the twelfth century, the idea of a waiting room for the afterlife has a long precedent, occurring as far back as Mesopotamian mythology. The Church, however, made Purgatory into a profitable venture, offering time off in return for material donations—something Martin Luther and later reformers would strenuously object to.

In a sense, the Purgatorio is about love and its various defects—not love in its fleshly guise, but in the Platonic sense of the motive force, emanating from God, that motivates us to do good. Dante and Virgil ascend the ten levels of the mountain. First are the ante-purgatories of the excommunicated and those who came late to repentance. They must wait outside for terms dependent on the length of their excommunication or life on earth. Then are the seven terraces, which each reflect the seven deadly sins: the proud, the envious, the wrathful, the slothful, the covetous, the gluttonous, and the lustful (both homosexual and heterosexual). Each terrace punishes its inmates appropriately, though not as badly as in hell, and there are edifying biblical scenes correcting each sin on each terrace. Each level also affords Dante the chance to speak with various historical and literary figures.

Finally, there is the earthly paradise where Dante finally meets Beatrice, who will be his guide from there on. This also covers the disappearance of the pagan Virgil, who can no longer help him. After drinking from the rivers Lethe and Eunoe, which erase the memory of past sins and restore the memory of good deeds, Dante is ready to enter paradise.

Structure of the Paradiso

To understand the Paradiso, we must understand medieval cosmology. Dante ascends through the various heavenly spheres, each of which corresponds to a certain virtue. The first is the moon, for those who were virtuous but who abandoned their vows, and thus were guilty of inconstancy—like the moon itself, which waxes and wanes. Then there are the ambitious, in the sphere of Mercury, and the lovers, who are, appropriately enough, in the sphere of Venus.

From there, Dante and Beatrice can proceed to the realms of unsullied virtue: the sun, where the wise such as King Solomon and Thomas Aquinas dwell; Mars, where warriors of the faith such as Judas Maccabeus have their rewards and where Dante’s own crusading ancestor Cacciaguida prophecies his coming exile; and Jupiter, realm of just rulers. Dante confusingly puts two pagans, the Roman emperor Trajan and Ripheus of Troy, in this sphere; however, he explains their presence with posthumous baptism. Higher still is the Eighth Sphere of Saturn, where contemplative saints—that is, monks—such as Peter Damian dwell. All of these encounters allow Dante to engage in political, philosophical, and theological speculation.

The higher Dante goes, the more rarified the truths he is exposed to. In the Eighth Sphere are the saints, such as the Virgin Mary. Here, St. Peter, St. James, and St. John question Dante on the cardinal virtues of faith, hope, and love. Beyond this is the primum mobile, the first sphere on which all else moves and where the angels dwell, and then finally they reach the Empyrean, the abode of God himself outside the realm of matter. Beatrice resumes her place as an angel serving God, and St. Bernard, a mystical contemplative, guides Dante further. He perceives God as three circles representing the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and struggles to understand how these transcendent beings fit together. With sudden inspiration, he realizes the truth: God is love.

Overall, Dante shows a great deal of independence in his religious thought. He is in effect creating his own personal journey from doubt to salvation, guided by his own insight and study. In this journey, he stands in sharp contrast with the others who had come to Rome in 1300 for the papal indulgence. In fact, he foretells that Boniface VIII—who granted the indulgence and came to office after the abdication of the unworldly Celestine V—is destined to hell for the crime of selling Church offices! For Dante, though, salvation comes not from the corrupt worldly Church but from the guidance of antique philosophy and literature and his own personal adulation of his beloved Beatrice. This sort of spiritual self-reliance, if not Dante’s exact method, was not uncommon in the Middle Ages, and would be a feature of various heretical movements before becoming permanently enshrined by the Protestant Reformation and Luther’s priesthood of all believers even as the Council of Trent reaffirmed the Catholic Church’s insistence on itself as the one path to salvation.

Longfellow and the Divine Comedy

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–82) was a poet and college professor who, much as Dante crafted a national epic for the Italian nation, worked to create similar works such as Paul Revere’s Ride and Hiawatha for the newly founded United States. He studied at Bowdoin College and, as was customary at the time, studied the classics—much as Dante did. In Europe, he studied several languages, including Spanish, French, Portuguese, German, Dutch, Finnish, Swedish, Danish, and Icelandic. Also like Dante, he experienced profound romantic loss: his first wife, Mary Storer Potter, died in 1835 at the age of twenty-two following a miscarriage, and his second wife, Frances Appleton, whom he married in 1843 following a seven-year courtship, died from burns sustained in an accident in 1861.

Longfellow’s interest in the Divine Comedy was partly intellectual and partly aesthetic. Rather than an idiomatic translation into clear English, Longfellow aimed at a poetic version that preserved the meter of the original. He spent several years poring over the translation before it was finally published in 1867, and revised it several times thereafter. He was the most popular—and wealthiest—poet of his day, and, though somewhat eclipsed by poets such as Whitman and Frost, who explored less epic themes, Longfellow remains as much a giant of American literature as Dante is of Italian.

Ken Mondschein, PhD

INFERNO

CANTO I

The Dark Forest—The Hill of Difficulty—The Panther, the Lion, and the Wolf—Virgil

Midway upon the journey of our life

I found myself within a forest dark,

For the straightforward pathway had been lost.

Ah me! how hard a thing it is to say

Which in the very thought renews the fear.

So bitter is it, death is little more;

But of the good to treat, which there I found,

Speak will I of the other things I saw there.

So full was I of slumber at the moment

In which I had abandoned the true way.

But after I had reached a mountain’s foot,

At that point where the valley terminated,

Upward I looked, and I beheld its shoulders,

Vested already with that planet’s rays

Which leadeth others right by every road.

Then was the fear a little quieted

The night, which I had passed so piteously.

And even as he, who, with distressful breath,

Forth issued from the sea upon the shore,

Turns to the water perilous and gazes;

Midway upon the journey of our life

I found myself within a forest dark,

For the straightforward pathway had been lost

Inferno I, lines 1–3

Turn itself back to re-behold the pass

Which never yet a living person left.

After my weary body I had rested,

The way resumed I on the desert slope,

And lo! almost where the ascent began,

A panther light and swift exceedingly,

Which with a spotted skin was covered o’er!

And never moved she from before my face,

That many times I to return had turned.

The time was the beginning of the morning,

And up the sun was mounting with those stars

That with him were, what time the Love Divine

So were to me occasion of good hope,

The variegated skin of that wild beast,

The hour of time, and the delicious season;

But not so much, that did not give me fear

He seemed as if against me he were coming

With head uplifted, and with ravenous hunger,

So that it seemed the air was afraid of him;

And a she-wolf, that with all hungerings

And many folk has caused to live forlorn!

She brought upon me so much heaviness,

With the affright that from her aspect came,

That I the hope relinquished of the height.

And the time comes that causes him to lose,

Who weeps in all his thoughts and is despondent,

And lo! almost where the ascent began,

A panther light and swift exceedingly,

Which with a spotted skin was covered o’er!

Inferno I, lines 31–33

He seemed as if against me he were coming

With head uplifted, and with ravenous hunger

Inferno I, lines 46–47

E’en such made me that beast withouten peace,

Which, coming on against me by degrees

While I was rushing downward to the lowland,

Before mine eyes did one present himself,

Who seemed from long-continued silence hoarse.

When I beheld him in the desert vast,

Whiche’er thou art, or shade or real man!

He answered me: "Not man; man once I was,

And both my parents were of Lombardy,

And Mantuans by country both of them.

And lived at Rome under the good Augustus,

During the time of false and lying gods.

A poet was I, and I sang that just

Son of Anchises, who came forth from Troy,

But thou, why goest thou back to such annoyance?

Why climb’st thou not the Mount Delectable,

Which is the source and cause of every joy?"

"Now, art thou that Virgilius and that fountain

I made response to him with bashful forehead.

"O, of the other poets honour and light,

Avail me the long study and great love

That have impelled me to explore thy volume!

Thou art alone the one from whom I took

The beautiful style that has done honour to me.

Behold the beast, for which I have turned back;

Do thou protect me from her, famous Sage,

"Behold the beast, for which I have turned back;

Do thou protect me from her, famous Sage"

Inferno I, lines 88–89

Thee it behoves to take another road,

Responded he, when he beheld me weeping,

"If from this savage place thou wouldst escape;

Because this beast, at which thou criest out,

But so doth harass him, that she destroys him;

And has a nature so malign and ruthless,

That never doth she glut her greedy will,

And after food is hungrier than before.

And more they shall be still, until the Greyhound

Comes, who shall make her perish in her pain.

He shall not feed on either earth or pelf,

But upon wisdom, and on love and virtue;

Of that low Italy shall he be the saviour,

On whose account the maid Camilla died,

Euryalus, Turnus, Nisus, of their wounds;

Through every city shall he hunt her down,

There from whence envy first did let her loose.

Therefore I think and judge it for thy best

Thou follow me, and I will be thy guide,

And lead thee hence through the eternal place,

Shalt see the ancient spirits disconsolate,

Who cry out each one for the second death;

And thou shalt see those who contented are

Within the fire, because they hope to come,

To whom, then, if thou wishest to ascend,

A soul shall be for that than I more worthy;

With her at my departure I will leave thee;

Because that Emperor, who reigns above,

Wills that through me none come into his city.

He governs everywhere, and there he reigns;

There is his city and his lofty throne;

O happy he whom thereto he elects!"

By that same God whom thou didst never know,

So that I may escape this woe and worse,

Thou wouldst conduct me there where thou hast said,

That I may see the portal of Saint Peter,

Then he moved on, and I behind him followed.

Then he moved on, and I behind him followed.

Inferno I, line 136

CANTO II

The Descent—Dante’s Protest and Virgil’s Appeal—The Intercession of the Three Ladies Benedight

Day was departing, and the embrowned air

Released the animals that are on earth

From their fatigues; and I the only one

Made myself ready to sustain the war,

Which memory that

Reviews for The Divine Comedy

[brightman-4 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

Extraordinary illustrations...Gustave Dore....Translated by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

[jhack-37 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

Un classico in un'edizione davvero prestigiosa.

[jbd1 · Rating: 4 out of 5 stars]

Dante's classic poem of his journeys through hell and heaven.

[thereadingmermaid · Rating: 3 out of 5 stars]

In finally sitting down and reading the entire Divine Comedy, I can now see why The Inferno is usually separated from Purgatorio & Paradiso. The Inferno is captivating and paints vivid pictures of what Dante &. Virgil are seeing and experiencing. However Purgatorio & Paradiso seemed to lack this each in their own way. Purgatorio was still able to paint the pictures but not quite as vividly. Perhaps the subject matter was not as captivating as well. Dante certainly had the gift of making Purgatory feel not too bad but also not too good. In Paradiso we switch guides from Virgil to Beatrice. It is then that Dante seems to loose his focus on his surroundings and turns toward fauning over Beatrice's beauty. I figured that the Canto with God in it would have been a bit more powerful & profound. Lucifer's appearance was more awe inspiring than God's. Don't get me wrong, I give credit to the absolute classic that this work is, however I think there are some issues with it from a reader's standpoint. When all of the action is over in the 1st portion of the book it becomes a chore to finish reading it. All-in-all this entire work was beautifully written in the terza rima rhyme scheme which adds a bit of romance to every line read. I have to mention that I think it's funny how people get the details of this work confused with The Holy Bible. There in itself stands testement to how amazing this work has been throughout history. Despite my personal issues with reading it I am honored to have read such famous and renouned piece of historical literature.

[rbeene-1 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

It is a wonderful read if you have footnotes to understand who the people he is talking about is. I found it fascinating and I hope that I finish it someday.

[krumbs_1 · Rating: 4 out of 5 stars]

Dore illustrations. Beautiful!

[worldincolour · Rating: 3 out of 5 stars]

Contains some wonderful imagery, but seems rather obsolete in certain sections. Still a masterful writing display though, which has had its impact over the last centuries.

[ireadby · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

Wow! All I can say is what a pleasurable and enriching experience to have had the opportunity to listen to Dante's legendary poetry read aloud. The only metaphorical example I can think of is the difference between watching an epic film (like "Life of Pi") in 2D or 3D.

Yes! Dante's Divine Comedy book vs. audiobook is on the same proportional movie-going scale! I highly recommend indulging yourself with this audiobook. It's one you'll want to purchase, not borrow!

[jawalter · Rating: 4 out of 5 stars]

eBook

Perhaps this was not the best choice of a book to read at the gym. That decision was certainly not helped by the fact that the eBook version I read had no footnotes.

I'd read the Inferno before, but never Purgatorio or Paradiso, and I was a little disappointed that the physicality I admired so much in the first part was slowly phased out as the poem went on. I suppose Dante was making a point about the difference between the physical world and his relationship to god, but what was so impressive about the Inferno was how he charged a discussion of ideas and morality with a concrete dimension. He made the abstract real.

This was carried over into Purgatorio, although to a lesser extent, but a significant portion of Paradiso seemed to be about his inability to fully render his experience. This seemed to me to be a structural flaw, as we are suddenly asked to once again perceive abstract concepts in an abstract way, and it seems a huge let down.

Or maybe I just needed footnotes to explain it to me.

[jcamilo_720582 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

Perhaps the world's greatest achivement.

[triphicus · Rating: 4 out of 5 stars]

Purgatorio is by far the best of the three.

[charlie68_1 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

Fascinating book that puts a different perspective on life and religion. Adds depth to the Bible and some of its symbolisms and philosophies. Has made me think of life and the life after death and has made me really aware of the precious things in life.

[trinibaby9 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

I loved everything up to the Paradisso portion. I know this is supposed to be the best part of the three but it really wasn't to me. I really thought the first two were absolutely excellent. This is definitely devine!

[shmuffin · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

A classic. One of my all time favorites. The visions and descriptions in The Inferno are enough to make anyone pious.

[tututhefirst_1 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

A gorgeous poem that has stood the test of time. This translation, along with the Moser illustrations, is a beautiful volume. Having the original Italian on the opposite page makes it more accessible. The author's notes are helpful, although readers without a heavy classical education may want to avail themselves of other notes or commentaries. A work that can be read in short bursts, and will be read again and again.

[bluehat1955 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

First and foremost, this is a review of Ciardi's translation. I haven't read any other translations of this work, but I did a moderate bit of research and the conclusion (of the critics) is that Ciardi's translation is superior.I have now read the Divine Comedy twice, and hope to read it at least once more -- if you read it you will see that it is the execution of perfection. Besides being about good and evil, and how one can salvage one's life by embracing the former while eschewing the latter, you will marvel at the structure of these three canticles. Dante leaves few loose ends. There are surprises, witticisms, and rapture.

[jvioland_1 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

A true classic that everyone should read but, unfortunately, few will genuinely appreciate. You travel the afterlife from Hell through Purgatory and arrive in Heaven. Along the way you meet various souls (some of whom Dante had been ticked at who today are not known) and realize the very Catholic approach to redemption.

[bayardus-1 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

Throughout The Divine Comedy Dante claims that his is no mere story, but a vision granted to him by the divine. While your personal faith probably plays a role in how you assess that claim, one thing is certain: Dante was a visionary, and The Divine Comedy contains some of the most stunning imagery you'll find in literature. Everyone has heard of Dante's nine circles of hell, but how many know that the ninth circle is surrounded by a living wall of giants, chained for their rebellion? Or that the mountain of purgatory is the land that was thrust up by Lucifer's fall, and atop it sits the Garden of Eden? Or that in paradise the souls of all the protectors of humanity form a huge eagle that addresses Dante, the eagle being formed of countless souls that shine like rubies in the sunlight? Not to mention the ultimate image Dante gives us, of the highest realm of heaven, wherein every soul that has reached paradise joins together to take the shape of a white rose, with God at its center.

It's beautiful stuff, and even in translation Dante's prose proves up to the task of describing it. From the opening of Inferno where Dante has lost his way to the final lines of each canticle that draw our minds to the stars, Dante is a masterful writer. Not only that, but he's an assertive writer as well. While I could easily imagine an author falling back on his beautiful writing and delivering only a milquetoast moral stance (and indeed, Dante mentions this temptation), in The Divine Comedy Dante makes his opinions known on issues large and small. He's not afraid to criticize the practice of blood feuds, or to pillory different orders of monks, or even to call out the leadership of the Church and the rulers of Italy. He places popes and kings in the fires of hell just as readily as he does false prophets and foreign conquerers.

In addition to this, The Divine Comedy serves as perhaps the best memorial for a lost love to ever be written. Dante's first love Beatrice, dead before he began work on The Divine Comedy, is not only placed by Dante among the highest ranks of paradise, but it is through her mercy and care that Dante is granted his vision of the divine. She is credited with not only inspiring his pen, but with saving his soul as well. Through this work Dante immortalizes his lost love, and if there is a love letter that can compare I don't know of it.

The work isn't without its flaws. Paradiso has several cantos that focus on Dante's take on cosmology or astrophysics that aren't only clearly wrong under our modern understanding, but that don't flow particularly well either. They're like Melville's chapters on whale classification in Moby Dick- they struck me as more distracting than atmospheric. Paradiso is also rife with Dante raising theological questions, only to give them unsatisfying answers. I wish Dante had given us more of his brilliant descriptions instead of trying his hand at reconciling the nature of God with real world events. Occasionally in Inferno it feels as though Dante is sticking it to the people he doesn't like in life at the expense of the flow of the canto, while at other times it feels as though Dante is making an exception for historical figures he really liked at the expense of the logic of the divine system he has described (Cato being the prime example, but various Roman and Greek figures throughout raise this issue). Still, these complaints are minor. It's a vision, after all, and so the lack of a concrete system with steadfast rules isn't surprising.

It's the journey that counts, not the destination, and Dante gives us one hell of a journey. It's an epic sightseeing trip through the world of Christian theology, a world that is still heavily influenced by the myths and scholars of ancient Rome and Greece. Though it's not perfect, it's great, and well worth your time.

[sandydog1_1 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

As with other books from a different time, take a course or get a good study guide. You'll never understand all the specific references to Florentine conflicts. Keep at it because understanding personalities, parody and sniping provides a lot of entertainment.

[zhenlee · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

I've read the book twice. First time I got lost after Purgatorio, second time I finished with astounding understanding even amazed myself. The book is more than just an imaginary piece of work. It was Dante's spiritual journey in his own understanding, marvelously relevant to anyone who is in his/her own pursuit. The book even violently shook me during my darkest spiritual struggle... Besides that, the structure, philosophy, language, you can never finish reading Dante.

[391_1 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

The edition I'm reading is Cary's, and, while I appreciate his command of iambic pentameter, I find him much harder to follow than Mandelbaum. I would recommend Cary or Longfellow for poetry, and Mandelbaum for comprehension, if given the choice between various translations.As for the actual book itself - well, it's the Divine Comedy. It's amazing. The Inferno is my favorite of the three, with the sheer of joy of Paradiso bumping it up to second. Purgatorio is the last of the three, because it drags a bit more than the other two. I wish I could go back and read this with a literature class or something, so that I could catch all the allusions and references - not being an Italian contemporary of his leaves quite a bit of the book stuck in obscurity, but I imagine that's easy remedied with a competent Virgil of your own to guide you through it.

[laydonstorm · Rating: 4 out of 5 stars]

This Allegory is the completed works of Dante transgressing the three stations (hell, purgatory, and paradise) in a way where one can truly understand the pain and suffering he went through to literally discover himself. The Divine Comedy is still to this day a highly read book by all ages and should continue to be so. With this take on the Allegory however did not follow the original Italian Vernacular and there by took away the authenticity of the epic.

[booksfordeb · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

Dante, Virgil, Hades, and the beloved Beatrice---what's not to like. This allegory of Dante's struggles with events in his own life with the geography of hell, purgatory, and paradise is beautiful. Dante was a beautiful writer. The story flows beautifully and leaves you with so many images of life and how to deal with it. Truly a masterpiece.

[alera_6 · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

Here is where I default by saying...I am not a Christian. However I grew up in churches...I like to think I know the bible better than most Christians seeing as I have actually read it. And I appreciate aspects of the religion. More than anything...the most interesting to me has always been the Catholics. Dante...while being ever so colorful...and ever so in the past...gives me a fun little look at past Christianity. What I noticed in this segment...rather than the other two...even he had some small concerns over his own religion...largely the way God was meant to deal with certain things...like the people who had come before said religion. People who might have been just as pure and pious and deserving of Heaven as those who came after. I enjoyed my realization that while he understood the rules of his religion what could and could not be done...he believed over that..that God was loving and merciful...should always be loving and merciful and therefore he could not understand partial exclusion of some. Which again I say came as a nice surprise because in the first two...I often got the feeling he was merely speaking out against what had been done to him...through his beliefs and his skill as a poet. Not that I'm saying he didn't...because well really...throwing enemies in hell and friends in heaven would have perks. But I think there is a little more there and I like it..a lot.

[pickwick817 · Rating: 2 out of 5 stars]

I didn't enjoy this book very much. There were a lot of references to people in politics at the time it was written (1200). Its interesting to see Dante's viewpoint on Catholicism during that time and throughout the book Virgil and Thomas Aquinas are referred to. I don't know too much about Catholicism then or now, so it was a little off topic for me. I was amazed at the technical aspect of the book. Dante refers to both mathematics in general and geometry at a fairly high level. My edition also had plenty of notes confiriming that most of Dante's calculations for sun, star and planet positions were correct. Seems a little technical for a religious story of a man's trip through hell, purgatory and heaven!

[alexthehunn · Rating: 4 out of 5 stars]

The Divine Comedy epitomized medieval attitudes. From historical perspectives, this work serves as a window into the mentality of late middle ages in Italy, on the brink of the Renaissance. Scholastic thinking informs Dante's approach.

[atomicmutant · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

I can't believe I read the whole thing. *phew*

[jpsnow · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

Deservedly a true classic, Dante's portrayal of the Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradisio is at the same time metaphysical allegory, religious and political commentary, and great poetry. I read John Ciardi's translation of the Inferno (1982) and Lawrence Binyon's interpretation of the latter two sections (1947, also includes several shorter poems and Dante's Vita Nuova). It is a work such as this that makes me wish my feeble mind could retain more of the specific details of what I read. The whole story takes place during the time of Easter, the various hours of which correspond to Dantes' travels. Inferno, in particular, hosts a myriad of fascinating events. We witness Dante descend with Virgil through a series of concentric rings, each holding a type of sinner and punishing them accordingly. Similar punihsments take place in Purgatorio, except of course that these seven deadly sins are being atoned for and occassionally a resident is freed to Paradise. Paradise also consists of a series of relative rewards, although everyone is completely happy with their lot in recognition of perfect justice (and they only differ in terms of relative bliss). Paradise is much more descriptive of the beauty and awe of God, Christ, and Mary. Dante used this work to compliment many of his friends and colleagues and also to disgrace political enemies and a host of popes.Two events in Dante's own life greatly influenced this final work of his -- his banishment from Florence and the death of his first love, Beatrice. The poem is structured in three sections each with 33 cantos consisting of three line groups. Together with the introduction, there are 10 cantos. Ciardi's translation is both more understandable and appealing to me.

[toddcates · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

This is a republication of the origial English translation. This is an amazing poem describing man's struggle with God and the afterlife.

[lisamaria_c · Rating: 5 out of 5 stars]

I find this among the most amazing works I've ever read--despite that the work is essentially Christian Allegory and I'm an atheist. First and foremost for its structure. Recently I read Moby Dick and though it had powerful passages I found it self-indulgent and bloated and devoutly wished an editor had taken a hatchet to the numerous digressions. There is no such thing as digressions in Dante. I don't think I've ever read a more carefully crafted work. We visit three realms in three Canticas (Hell, Purgatory and Heaven) each of 33 cantos and in a terza rima verse in a triple rhyme scheme. Nothing is incidental or left to chance here. That's not where the structure ends either. Hell has nine levels, Purgatory has seven terraces on its mountain and Heaven nine celestial spheres (so, yes, there is a Seventh Heaven!) All in all, this is an imaginary landscape worthy of Tolkien or Pratchett, both in large ways and small details. I found it fitting how Dante tied both sins and virtues to love--a sin was love misdirected or applied, and the lower you go in hell, the less love there is involved, until at the lowest reaches you find Satan and traitors encased in a lake of ice. Then there are all the striking phrases, plays of ideas and gorgeous imagery that comes through despite translations. This might be Christian Allegory, but unlike say John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress it's far from dry or tedious and is full of real life contemporaries of Dante and historical figures. There are also Dante's guides here. His Virgil is wonderful--and the perfect choice. The great Latin poet of the Aeneid leading the great Italian poet who made his Tuscan dialect the standard with his poetry. Well, guide through Hell and Purgatory until he changes places with Beatrice. Which reminds me of that old joke--Heaven for the climate--Hell for the company.And certainly Hell is what stays most vividly in my mind. I remember still loving the Purgatorio--it's the most human and relatable somehow of the poems and Paradise has its beauties. But I remember the people of Hell best. There's Virgil of course, who must remain in limbo for eternity because he wasn't a Christian. There's Francesca di Rimini and her lover, for their adultery forever condemned to be flung about in an eternal wind so that even Dante pities them. And that, of course, is the flip side of this. Dante's poem embodies the orthodox Roman Catholic Christianity of the 1300s and might give even Christians today pause. Even though I don't count myself a Christian, I get the appeal of hell. In fact, I can remember exactly when I understood it. When once upon a time I felt betrayed, and knew there was no recourse. The person involved would never get their comeuppance upon this Earth. How nice I thought, if there really was a God and a Hell to redress the balance. The virtue of any Hell therefore is justice. These are the words Dante tells us are at hell's entrance.THROUGH ME THE WAY INTO THE SUFFERING CITY,THROUGH ME THE WAY TO THE ETERNAL PAIN,THROUGH ME THE WAY THAT RUNS AMONG THE LOST. JUSTICE URGED ON MY HIGH ARTIFICER;MY MAKER WAS DIVINE AUTHORITY,THE HIGHEST WISDOM, AND THE PRIMAL LOVE. BEFORE ME NOTHING BUT ETERNAL THINGSWERE MADE, AND I ENDURE ETERNALLY.ABANDON EVERY HOPE, WHO ENTER HERE.It's hard to see Dante's vision matching the orthodox doctrine as just however, even when I might agree a particular transgression deserves punishment. Never mind the virtuous and good in limbo because they weren't Christians or unbaptized or in hell because they committed suicide or were homosexual. And poor Cassio and Brutus, condemned to the lowest circle because they conspired to kill a tyrant who was destroying their republic. My biggest problem with hell is that it is eternal. Take all the worst tyrants who murdered millions, make them suffer not only the length of the lifetimes of their victims but all the years they might have had, I doubt if you add it up it comes to the age of the Earth--never mind eternity. Justice taken to extremes is not justice--it's vindictiveness and sadism. Something impossible for me to equate with "the primal love." Yet I loved this work so much upon my first read (I read the Dorothy Sayers translation) I went out and bought two other versions. One by Allen Mandelbaum (primarily because it was a dual language book with the Italian on one page facing the English translation) and a hardcover version translated by Charles Eliot Norton. Finally, before writing up my review and inspired by Matthew Pearl's The Dante Club, I got reacquainted by finding Longfellow's translation online. Of all of them, I greatly prefer Mandelbaum's translation. The others try to keep the rhyming and rhythm of the original and this means a sometimes tortured syntax and use of archaic words and the result is forced and often obscure, making the work much harder to read than it should be.