CLEP Western Civilization I - Ancient Near East to 1648

By Robert M Ziomkowski and Larissa Juliet Taylor

REA … Real review, Real practice, Real results.

An easier path to a college degree – get college credits without the classes.

CLEP WESTERN CIVILIZATION I: Ancient Near East to 1648
Based on today’s official CLEP exam

Are you prepared to excel on the CLEP?
* Take the first practice test to discover what you know and what you should know
* Set up a flexible study schedule by following our easy timeline
* Use REA's advice to ready yourself for proper study and success

Study what you need to know to pass the exam
* The book's on-target subject review features coverage of all topics on the official CLEP exam from the age-old Near East kingdoms through Ancient Greece and Rome, up to the Middle Ages and early Modern Europe of 1648.
* Smart and friendly lessons reinforce necessary skills
* Key tutorials enhance specific abilities needed on the test
* Targeted drills increase comprehension and help organize study

Practice for real
* Create the closest experience to test-day conditions with 2 full-length practice tests
* Chart your progress with full and detailed explanations of all answers
* Boost your confidence with test-taking strategies and experienced advice

Specially Written for Solo Test Preparation!

REA is the acknowledged leader in CLEP preparation, with the most extensive library of CLEP titles and software available. Most titles are also offered with REA's exclusive TESTware software to make your practice more effective and more like exam day. REA's CLEP Prep guides will help you get valuable credits, save on tuition, and advance your chosen career by earning a college degree.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Research & Education Association
• Release date: Sep 9, 2011
• ISBN: 9780738666372

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The Best Test Preparation for the CLEP

Western Civilization I

Robert Ziomkowski

Research & Education Association

61 Ethel Road West

Piscataway, New Jersey 08854

E-mail: [e-mail]

The Best Test Preparation for the

CLEP WESTERN CIVILIZATION I EXAM

Published 2008

Copyright © 2006 by Research & Education Association, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Control Number 2005932918

9780738666372

REA® is a registered trademark of Research & Education Association, Inc.

About the Author

Robert Ziomkowski, Ph.D., received a postdoctoral degree at the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto, in 2002. He earned his doctorate in History from Cornell University in 2000. Dr. Ziomkowski’s teaching repertoire includes courses in western civilization, medieval history, ancient history, science in the western tradition, Islamic civilization and Latin, as well as seminars on witchcraft and heresy, the soul in medieval culture, and paleography. His current research focuses on the medieval reception of ancient Greek science, especially as seen in commentaries on the creation narratives in the Book of Genesis and Plato’s Timaeus. Dr. Ziomkowski’s publications include a monograph on a controversial medieval thinker, Manegold of Lautenbach: Liber contra Wolfelmum (Louvain: Peeters Press, 2002; Dallas Medieval Texts and Translations, vol. 1), as well as articles in The Journal of Neoplatonic Studies and Scribner’s New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. In 2002–2003 he curated an exhibition of Cornell University’s medieval manuscripts and published an online version, From Manuscript to Print: The Evolution of the Medieval Book (http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/medievalbook/). He currently teaches at Ithaca College.

About Research & Education Association

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Acknowledgments

In addition to our author, we would like to thank Larry B. Kling, Vice President, Editorial, for his overall guidance, which brought this publication to completion; Pam Weston, Vice President, Publishing, for setting the quality standards for production integrity and managing the publication to completion; Diane Goldschmidt, Associate Editor, for managing content development; and Dr. Larissa Taylor, Colby College, for reviewing the manuscript. Our cover was designed by Christine Saul.

We also gratefully acknowledge the team at Publication Services for page composition, proofreading, and pre-production file mapping.

Table of Contents

REA’s Test Prep Books Are The Best!

Title Page

Copyright Page

About the Author

About Research & Education Association

Acknowledgments

CLEP WESTERN CIVILIZATION I - Independent Study Schedule

INTRODUCTION - Passing the CLEP Western Civilization I Exam

CHAPTER 1 - The Ancient Near East

CHAPTER 2 - Ancient Greece

CHAPTER 3 - Ancient Rome

CHAPTER 4 - The Middle Ages

CHAPTER 5 - Renaissance and Reformation

CHAPTER 6 - Early Modern Europe

PRACTICE - TEST 1

PRACTICE - TEST 2

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Index

CLEP WESTERN CIVILIZATION I

Independent Study Schedule

The following study schedule allows for thorough preparation for the CLEP Western Civilization I. Although it is designed for four weeks, it can be reduced to a two-week course by collapsing each two-week period into one. Be sure to set aside enough time—at least two hours each day—to study. But no matter which study schedule works best for you, the more time you spend studying, the more prepared and relaxed you will feel on the day of the exam.

INTRODUCTION

Passing the CLEP Western Civilization I Exam

ABOUT THIS BOOK

This book provides you with complete preparation for the CLEP Western Civilization I exam. Inside you will find a concise review of the subject matter, as well as tips and strategies for test-taking. We also give you two full-length practice tests, which are based on the official CLEP Western Civilization I exam. Our practice tests contain every type of question that you can expect to encounter on the actual exam. Following each practice test you will find an answer key with detailed explanations designed to help you more completely understand the test material.

All 34 CLEP exams are computer-based. As you can see, the practice tests in our book are presented as paper-and-pencil exams. Even so, the content and format of the actual CLEP subject exam are faithfully mirrored. We detail the format and content of the CLEP Western Civilization I on pages xvii–xviii.

ABOUT THE EXAM

Who takes the CLEP Western Civilization I and what is it used for?

CLEP (College-Level Examination Program) examinations are typically taken by people who have acquired knowledge outside the classroom and wish to bypass certain college courses and earn college credit. The CLEP is designed to reward students for learning—no matter where or how that knowledge was acquired. The CLEP is the most widely accepted credit-by-examination program in the country, with more than 2,900 colleges and universities granting credit for satisfactory scores on CLEP exams.

Although most CLEP examinees are adults returning to college, many graduating high school seniors, enrolled college students, military personnel, and international students also take the exams to earn college credit or to demonstrate their ability to perform at the college level. There are no prerequisites, such as age or educational status, for taking CLEP examinations. However, because policies on granting credits vary among colleges, you should contact the particular institution from which you wish to receive CLEP credit.

There are two categories of CLEP examinations:

1. CLEP General Examinations, which are five separate tests that cover material usually taken as requirements during the first two years of college. CLEP General Examinations are available for English Composition (with or without essay), Humanities, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, and Social Sciences and History.

2. CLEP Subject Examinations, which include material usually covered in an undergraduate course with a similar title. The CLEP Western Civilization I is one of 29 subject examinations.

Who administers the exam?

The CLEP tests are developed by the College Board, administered by Educational Testing Service (ETS), and involve the assistance of educators throughout the United States. The test development process is designed and implemented to ensure that the content and difficulty level of the test are appropriate.

When and where is the exam given?

The CLEP Western Civilization I is administered each month throughout the year at more than 1,400 test centers in the United States and can be arranged for candidates abroad on request. To find the test center nearest you and to register for the exam, you should obtain a copy of the free booklets CLEP Colleges and CLEP Information for Candidates and Registration Form. They are available at most colleges where CLEP credit is granted, or by contacting:

CLEP Services

P.O. Box 6600

Princeton, NJ 08541-6600

Phone: [phone] (8 a.m. to 6 p.m. ET, Monday–Friday)

Email: [e-mail]

Website: www.collegeboard.com/clep

Military Personnel, Veterans, and CLEP

CLEP exams are available free of charge to eligible military personnel and eligible civilian employees. All the CLEP exams are available at test centers on college campuses and military bases. In addition, the College Board has developed a paper-based version of 14 high-volume/high-pass-rate CLEP tests for DANTES Test Centers. Contact the Educational Services Officer or Navy College Education Specialist for more information. Visit the College Board website for details about CLEP opportunities for military personnel.

Eligible U.S. veterans can claim reimbursement for CLEP exams and administration fees pursuant to provisions of the Veterans Benefits Improvement Act of 2004. For details on eligibility and submitting a claim for reimbursement, visit the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs website at www.gibill.va.gov/pamphlets/testing.htm.

SSD Accommodations for Students with Disabilities

Many students qualify for extra time to take the CLEP Western Civilization I exam, but you must make these arrangements in advance. For information, contact:

College Board Services for Students with Disabilities

P.O. Box 6226

Princeton, NJ 08541-6226

Phone: [phone] Mon.–Fri. 8 A.M. to 6 P.M. (Eastern time)

TTY: [phone]

Fax: [phone]

E-mail: [e-mail]

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

What do I study first?

Read over the course review and the suggestions for test-taking, take the first practice test to determine your area(s) of weakness, and then go back and focus your study on those specific problems. Studying the reviews thoroughly will reinforce the basic skills you will need to do well on the exam. Make sure to take the practice tests to become familiar with the format and procedures involved with taking the actual exam.

To best utilize your study time, follow our Independent Study Schedule, which you’ll find in the front of this book. The schedule is based on a four-week program, but can be condensed to two weeks if necessary by collapsing each two-week period into one.

When should I start studying?

It is never too early to start studying for the CLEP Western Civilization I. The earlier you begin, the more time you will have to sharpen your skills. Do not procrastinate! Cramming is not an effective way to study, since it does not allow you the time needed to learn the test material. The sooner you learn the format of the exam, the more time you will have to familiarize yourself with it.

FORMAT AND CONTENT OF THE CLEP

The CLEP Western Civilization I covers the material one would be taught in the first semester of a two-semester course in Western Civilization. The exam questions deal with the civilizations of Ancient Greece, Rome and the Near East; the Middle Ages; the Renaissance and Reformation; and Early Modern Europe.

The exam consists of 120 multiple-choice questions, each with five possible answer choices, to be answered within 90 minutes.

The approximate breakdown of topics is as follows:

ABOUT OUR COURSE REVIEW

The review in this book provides you with a complete background of all the important persons, events and developments of Western Civilization from ancient times through the first half of the seventeenth century. It will help reinforce the facts you have already learned while better shaping your understanding of the discipline as a whole. By using the review in conjunction with the practice tests, you should be well prepared to take the CLEP Western Civilization I.

PRACTICE-TEST RAW SCORE CONVERSION TABLE *

SCORING YOUR PRACTICE TESTS

How do I score my practice tests?

The CLEP Western Civilization I is scored on a scale of 20 to 80. To score your practice tests, count up the number of correct answers. This is your total raw score. Convert your raw score to a scaled score using the conversion table on the previous page. (Note: The conversion table provides only an estimate of your scaled score. Scaled scores can and do vary over time, and in no case should a sample test be taken as a precise predictor of test performance. Nonetheless, our scoring table allows you to judge your level of performance within a reasonable scoring range.)

When will I receive my score report?

The test administrator will print out a full Candidate Score Report for you immediately upon your completion of the exam (except for CLEP English Composition with Essay). Your scores are reported only to you, unless you ask to have them sent elsewhere. If you want your scores reported to a college or other institution, you must say so when you take the examination. Since your scores are kept on file for 20 years, you can also request transcripts from Educational Testing Service at a later date.

STUDYING FOR THE CLEP

It is very important for you to choose the time and place for studying that works best for you. Some students may set aside a certain number of hours every morning, while others may choose to study at night before going to sleep. Other students may study during the day, while waiting on a line, or even while eating lunch. Only you can determine when and where your study time will be most effective. But be consistent and use your time wisely. Work out a study routine and stick to it!

When you take the practice tests, try to make your testing conditions as much like the actual test as possible. Turn your television and radio off, and sit down at a quiet table free from distraction. Make sure to time yourself. Start off by setting a timer for the time that is allotted for each section, and be sure to reset the timer for the appropriate amount of time when you start a new section.

As you complete each practice test, score your test and thoroughly review the explanations to the questions you answered incorrectly; however, do not review too much at one time. Concentrate on one problem area at a time by reviewing the question and explanation, and by studying our review until you are confident that you completely understand the material.

Keep track of your scores and mark them on the Scoring Worksheet. By doing so, you will be able to gauge your progress and discover general weaknesses in particular sections. You should carefully study the reviews that cover your areas of difficulty, as this will build your skills in those areas.

TEST-TAKING TIPS

Although you may not be familiar with computer-based standardized tests such as the CLEP Western Civilization I, there are many ways to acquaint yourself with this type of examination and to help alleviate your test-taking anxieties. Listed below are ways to help you become accustomed to the CLEP, some of which may be applied to other standardized tests as well.

Know the format of the CBT. CLEP CBTs are not adaptive but rather fixed-length tests. In a sense, this makes them kin to the familiar paper-and-pencil exam in that you have the same flexibility to go back and review your work in each section. Moreover, the format isn’t a great deal different from the paper-and-pencil CLEP.

Read all of the possible answers. Just because you think you have found the correct response, do not automatically assume that it is the best answer. Read through each choice to be sure that you are not making a mistake by jumping to conclusions.

Use the process of elimination. Go through each answer to a question and eliminate as many of the answer choices as possible. By eliminating just two answer choices, you give yourself a better chance of getting the item correct, since there will only be three choices left from which to make your guess. Remember, your score is based only on the number of questions you answer correctly.

Work quickly and steadily. You will have only 90 minutes to work on 120 questions, so work quickly and steadily to avoid focusing on any one question too long. Taking the practice tests in this book will help you learn to budget your time.

Acquaint yourself with the computer screen. Familiarize yourself with the CLEP computer screen beforehand by logging on to the College Board website. Waiting until test day to see what it looks like in the pretest tutorial risks experiencing needless anxiety into your testing experience. Also, familiarizing yourself with the directions and format of the exam will save you valuable time on the day of the actual test.

Be sure that your answer registers before you go to the next item. Look at the screen to see that your mouse-click causes the pointer to darken the proper oval. This takes less effort than darkening an oval on paper, but don’t lull yourself into taking less care!

THE DAY OF THE EXAM

Preparing for the CLEP

On the day of the test, you should wake up early (hopefully after a decent night’s rest) and have a good breakfast. Make sure to dress comfortably, so that you are not distracted by being too hot or too cold while taking the test. Also plan to arrive at the test center early. This will allow you to collect your thoughts and relax before the test, and will also spare you the anxiety that comes with being late. As an added incentive to make sure you arrive early, keep in mind that no one will be allowed into the test session after the test has begun.

Before you leave for the test center, make sure that you have your admission form and another form of identification, which must contain a recent photograph, your name, and signature (i.e., driver’s license, student identification card, or current alien registration card). You will not be admitted to the test center if you do not have proper identification.

If you would like, you may wear a watch to the test center. However, you may not wear one that makes noise, because it may disturb the other test-takers. No dictionaries, textbooks, notebooks, briefcases, or packages will be permitted and drinking, smoking, and eating are prohibited.

Good luck on the CLEP Western Civilization I exam!

CHAPTER 1

The Ancient Near East

WESTERN AND NEAR EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS

Western Civilization arose in southeastern Europe. Its earliest representatives were the ancient Greeks. Civilization itself first appeared in the ancient Near East, in a region known as the Fertile Crescent. The cultures that flourished there exerted important influences on the rise and later course of Western Civilization.

THE FERTILE CRESCENT

Valleys and Cities. The Fertile Crescent is an area of river valleys in the generally arid Near East where rainfall and drainage is sufficient to ensure the growth of crops. It stretches in a semi-circular band from the Tigris-Euphrates valley (in modern Iraq) northwest into Syria, then south along the shore of the Mediterranean sea toward the Nile river valley in Egypt. (Civilizations also appeared to the east somewhat later, in the Indus river valley in India and the Yellow river valley in China.) The favorable conditions for agriculture afforded by these river valleys encouraged population growth and enabled the people living in them to devote some of their time to pursuits other than raising food. These people became better organized than their contemporaries who lived in other parts of the world, and they began to congregate in cities, which were in essence spaces to facilitate economic interactions. With the appearance of cities, civilization was born. (The word civilization is related to the Latin word civitas, which means city or community.) Since the inhabitants of a city do not produce their own food but are engaged in specialized trades, cities cannot support themselves, and thus exist only where agriculture is successful enough to produce a surplus, which the urban population purchases. Thus, cities first arose only where especially favorable conditions existed for raising food, and these conditions were first attained in river valleys at a time when the culture of human beings had risen to a certain level of sophistication.

The Old Stone Age. Cities could not have arisen without certain preceding innovations. During the earliest phase of technological progress, known as the Paleolithic Age (or Old Stone Age), human beings lived as nomads in small communities, hunting and gathering fruits for their sustenance, and using fire and crude implements fashioned principally from stone and wood to assist in the struggle for survival. The most advanced tool of the time was the bow and arrow, which may have been in use by 25,000 B.C.E.

The New Stone Age. Around 8000 B.C.E., after the most recent retreat of the glaciers that covered large portions of Europe and North America, there occurred a cultural revolution that inaugurated the Neolithic Age (or New Stone Age), during which stone tools were refined, animals were domesticated, and agriculture was developed. Many human beings abandoned nomadism in favor of a settled way of life, as necessary for the practice of farming, and organized themselves in small villages. Agriculture aided greatly in the struggle against the ever-present threat of starvation, but it required a vast commitment of labor. Until very recent times, when advances in science and technology led to labor-saving breakthroughs in agricultural techniques, the vast majority of human beings had to be engaged in agriculture, and the surpluses produced were relatively meager, so that only a small percentage of the population could live in cities.

The Bronze Age. By the time human beings began to live in cities, they had discovered how to work metals. Tools were generally no longer made from stone but from an alloy of copper and tin, known as bronze. It should be noted that Bronze Age is, chronologically speaking, a relative term that differs from one culture to another, since different cultures transitioned from the use of stone to bronze implements at different times. In the Fertile Crescent, the Bronze Age began with the appearance of cities, around 3000 B.C.E.

Irrigation. In addition to cities and metal-working, two key features of civilization in the Fertile Crescent were irrigation and writing. It was the discovery of irrigation that gave people living in the river valleys an advantage over people who practiced farming in the highlands. Without irrigation, a period of drought could lead to famine. Irrigation, in contrast, offered protection against drought (since water could be diverted from the river into fields nearby) and ensured a higher yield of crops (since variations in rainfall had less of an effect on growth). Since surpluses were greater and were generally maintained at a more constant level, agriculture in river valleys made cities viable in the long term.

Writing. As noted above, cities were essentially places that facilitated the exchange of goods, and were, therefore, primarily an economic development. In order to keep track of business transactions, people needed a method of keeping records. Writing developed to meet this need. Thus, although it was eventually put to many uses, its most prevalent early use was economic. Writing was also used by rulers to keep records, so cities became centers of political administration as well as economic focal points.

History and Prehistory. History itself begins with writing, which preserves details about a given culture at a certain moment in time with a fairly high degree of accuracy. All events prior to the advent of writing in a given culture are prehistoric and can only be inferred on the basis of archaeological evidence and legends (which were initially passed down by oral tradition and only later preserved in writing). Thus events during the Stone Ages are mostly hypothetical and imprecise, but events from the Bronze Age in the Fertile Crescent and later—beginning about five thousand years ago, when human beings in the region began to write—offer a much greater degree of certainty and detail. Nevertheless, the written record at this time is neither complete nor unambiguous, so it is important to supplement it with archaeology and mythology.

MESOPOTAMIA

Sumer. The earliest cities arose about 3200 B.C.E. in the Tigris-Euphrates valley, known as Mesopotamia (which means land between the rivers). In the southern region of Mesopotamia, called Sumer after the culture of its inhabitants, these cities became small states that governed areas about 10 miles in diameter and fought among themselves over the control of water. As the stronger Sumerian city-states conquered the weaker, larger political units were established and these fought one another on a larger scale, in an effort to unify the entire valley under their own control. Unification of the entire river-valley was desirable because it would lead to more efficient use of the river systems for agriculture, and conflict arose because one city-state was unwilling to surrender its sovereignty to another to achieve this goal.

Akkadians. A semi-nomadic people known as the Akkadians, who spoke a Semitic language, began to leave the deserts west of Mesopotamia and settle in the central region of the Tigris-Euphrates valley during the fourth millennium B.C.E. These Akkadians, led by their king Sargon (c. 2371–2316 B.C.E.), conquered the various Sumerian city-states and established an empire that unified Mesopotamia and reached beyond its boundaries, into the Iranian plateau in the east and as far west as Lebanon. Sargon’s dynasty ruled Akkad and Sumer for about 200 years.

Third Dynasty of Ur. Many Sumerians resented the Akkadian attempt to dominate them, and around 2100 B.C.E. the Sumerian city of Ur attained control of Mesopotamia, after the Akkadian empire had been weakened by foreign invasions. This Third Dynasty of Ur ruled for about 100 years. Dissension led to a period of chaos during which no single dynasty controlled the entire region (c. 2000–1900 B.C.E.). By the time unity was restored, the Sumerians had lost their identity as a distinct group.

Amorites (Old Babylonian Dynasty). Mesopotamia was once again unified, this time by a people known as the Amorites. Their empire is known as the Old Babylonian, since they established their capital at Babylon, on the Euphrates. They ruled for about 300 years, from around 1900 to 1600 B.C.E. Their greatest king was Hammurabi (c. 1792–1750 B.C.E.), who is famous for his law code. Hammurabi’s Code was a collection of old and new legal judgments, resulting in the most comprehensive body of law from ancient Mesopotamia. The code prescribed harsh punishments for violators, according to the principle an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. Like other Mesopotamian kings, Hammurabi claimed to be a representative of the gods, from whom he derived his authority. His code was intended to provide stability in a hierarchical society, with the king at the top of the social pyramid, the warrior aristocracy and priesthood on a level below him, freemen (such as peasants and merchants) below the nobles and priests, and slaves at the bottom. Slaves might be foreigners conquered in war or Mesopotamian citizens who could not pay off their debts. Slavery was often temporary, for freemen who fell into debt became slaves until they paid off what they owed by means of physical labor; they were also allowed to do business and own property, and they might thereby buy their freedom. Hammurabi’s Code dealt principally with legislation regarding the family (regulating divorce and inheritance), the ownership of land, and commercial transactions.

Hittites, Kassites, and Hurrians. The Old Babylonian empire disintegrated around 1600 B.C.E. after it was attacked by two different groups of invaders: Hittites from Anatolia (Asia Minor) in the north and Kassites from the east (the region that is now Iran). Although the Hittites merely plundered the Old Babylonian empire and returned home with the spoils of war, the Kassites established themselves as rulers for 300 years. Another group, the Hurrians, established the kingdom of Mitanni in the upper Tigris-Euphrates valley around 1500 B.C.E.; it lasted until about 1400 B.C.E., when the Hittites conquered the Hurrians.

MESOPOTAMIAN CULTURE

Cuneiform. As noted earlier, writing was at first primarily used to keep track of goods. As early as 8000 B.C.E., tokens appear to have been used for this purpose. By about 3000 B.C.E., the Sumerians replaced these tokens with marks impressed on clay tablets, utilizing a stylus that created wedge-shaped strokes. Such script is called cuneiform (from the Latin cuneus, or wedge). The marks were initially pictographs, or symbols representing physical objects. These marks were later joined by ideograms, or symbols representing ideas. The symbols became even more abstract when the marks began to be used phonetically, signifying not an object or idea but the sounds of spoken words. Mesopotamian cuneiform was a combination of pictographs and ideograms that signified entire words, and phonetic symbols that represented the sounds of distinct syllables. Since the phonetic symbols represented entire syllables rather than individual sounds, Mesopotamian cuneiform did not employ an alphabet (whose components are letters) but a syllabary (whose components are syllables). Because the Mesopotamian cuneiform system required the