Undoubtedly Wright’s vaccine needed considerable adjustment and improvement, and in 1903 a Glaswegian professor of pathology named William Boog Leishman set about this task with vigour. Three years later, Arnold Netter, a French bacteriologist writing with authority for the BMJ, endorsed both German and British vaccines as suitable prophylaxis in the fight against typhoid.
European armies introduced vaccination programmes for their troops, especially for those stationed in colonial garrisons where typhoid was rife. In 1911 anti-typhoid vaccination was made compulsory for all US Army personnel aged 45 and under; the US Navy followed suit in
