Brief History of the Antarctic Exploration

By Gerardo Bartolomé

Antarctica, a continent like no other. Not only because of its beauty but also because of its unique history, without wars, kings or indigenous cultures. This book delves into its exploration, offering key insights into events and motivations. A concise overview, it's designed for those preparing for an Antarctic journey or seeking quick insights into its history. With over 150 images, it captures the essence of this exceptional place. For more in-depth explorations, additional resources are suggested in the final appendix. Explore Antarctica's history through a succinct and enjoyable reading experience.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Ediciones Históricas
• Release date: Mar 3, 2024
• ISBN: 9786319035049

Book preview

INTRODUCTION

Antarctica stands as a continent like no other, both in its stark physical appearance and its unparalleled history. Devoid of wars, monarchs, religions, and indigenous cultures, the narrative of Antarctica unfolds primarily through the lens of exploration. Remarkably, its present reality is equally distinctive—a collaborative effort among various nations, even those with historical rivalries, to preserve the pristine nature of this white expanse.

This book delves into the exploration of Antarctica, aiming to unravel the events and motivations that shaped its unique history. Rather than an exhaustive catalog of details and anecdotes, the focus is on providing a comprehensive understanding of key events. Whether the reader is preparing for a journey to Antarctica or simply seeking a quick yet insightful overview of its history, this publication offers a concise and enjoyable reading experience. For those desiring more in-depth explorations of specific events, additional resources are suggested in the final appendix.

Comprising over 150 images, this publication recognizes the exceptional nature of Antarctica and the events that happened there. Many of these visuals were captured by the very expeditioners who embarked on these journeys, emphasizing the intrinsic role of photography as a means to comprehend the uniqueness of this icy realm.

Gerardo Bartolomé

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Endurance photographed during the Antarctic night by Frank Hurley

CHAPTER 1. History of a Geological Odyssey

Antarctica remained uninhabited by humans until the advent of civilization and exploration. It stands as a singular continent, distinguished by vast expanses of ice that differentiate it from all others. Life on this icy mass is notably distinct, with an environment less vibrant than many other regions of the world. This uniqueness stems from its extraordinary position over the South Pole, where the angled rays of sun-light barely succeed in raising temperatures beyond freezing points. Nevertheless, Antarctica’s present icy landscape signifies a relatively recent transformation, as it did not always exhibit such extreme conditions.

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Forests in the Antarctic Peninsula 70-100 million years ago.

Artistic reconstruction by J. Howe, J. E. Francis and others

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Pangea continent

The concept of Continental Drift is fundamental to understanding the geological history of Earth and the distribution of continents. Around 200 million years ago, Earth’s landmasses were part of a supercontinent known as Pangea. Pangea began breaking apart due to the process of continental drift, driven by the movement of tectonic plates. One of the resulting fragments was Gondwana, which included what are now the continents of South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, the Indian subcontinent, and the Arabian Peninsula.

As Gondwana continued to break apart, these landmasses drifted towards their current positions. The process of continental drift significantly influenced Earth’s climate, ecology, and the distribution of flora and fauna. The displacement of continents gave rise to new oceanic currents, resulting in alterations to global weather patterns and the facilitation of the evolution of diverse ecosystems.

Over the course of millions of years, the land that eventually became Antarctica gradually shifted southward, undergoing substantial climate changes. Originally situated nearer to the equator within the supercontinent Gondwana, Antarctica enjoyed a temperate climate and was adorned with lush forests. However, as it journeyed towards the South Pole, a profound transformation ensued. Approximately 35 million years ago, Antarctica found itself isolated at the South Pole, resulting in a cooling climate and, eventually, the formation of an extensive ice sheet that covered the entire continent.

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Wegener used fossil record to deduce his Continental Drift Theory

This transition had profound consequences for the flora and fauna residing in Antarctica. The landscape, once adorned with forests, yielded to a vast expanse of ice, leading to significant adaptations and, in some cases, the disappearance of many species. The fossil record in Antarctica serves as a valuable archive, offering insights into the evolution and adaptation of life in response to the impactful environmental changes induced by continental drift and the subsequent glaciation of the continent. The study of these ancient ecosystems is instrumental in assisting scientists in unraveling the intricate interplay between geological processes and the evolution of life on Earth.

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World-map including Antarctica

CHAPTER 2. Placing Antarctica on the Map

The term ‘Arctic’ traces its roots to ancient Greek, stemming from the word ‘arktikos,’ which translates to ‘of the bear’ or ‘northern.’ This designation specifically refers to the constellation Ursa Major, widely recognized as the Great Bear, prominently visible in the northern sky. While Ursa Major does not contain Polaris, the North Star, Polaris is associated with its neighboring constellation Ursa Minor.

The Arctic region derives its name from its celestial connection to the northernmost part of the Earth. The term Arctic is rooted in the Greek word arktikos, associated with the northern celestial bear, a connection that significantly influenced the nomenclature of the Arctic region. This term has persisted for centuries, serving as a fundamental descriptor for Earth’s northern extremities. In contrast, the Antarctic, derived from the Greek word antarktikos, meaning opposite to the Arctic or opposite to the bear, underscores its location at the opposite pole of the Earth, establishing a clear counterpart to the Arctic.

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Polaris in Ursa Minor and Ursa Major

A Mysterious map…

In 1572, Abraham Ortelius released a map titled "Typus Orbis Terrarum, a notable inclusion within his comprehensive atlas named Theatrum Orbis Terrarum. This map featured a substantial landmass situated in the South Pole region, identified as Terra Australis, translating to the land of the South" in Latin.

Was he aware of the existence of Antarctica? No. His reasoning followed the belief that, given the Earth’s spherical nature, there must be a balance of land in both hemispheres.

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Abraham Ortelius, by Peter Paul Rubens

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Ortelius’ World Map

If there was already extensive known land in the northern hemisphere, he inferred that undiscovered land must exist in the southern hemisphere. Drawing on Magellan’s successful crossing from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, he speculated that the straits, now recognized as the Straits of Magellan, separated America from the presumed Terra Australis.

The term Antarticus was similarly employed as a counterpart to Arcticus.

As explorers ventured south, Terra Australis/Antarcticus gradually diminished in size due to the absence of such a landmass. In 1580,