The English Bible Translations and History: Millennium Edition

By John C. Greider

The English Bible Translations and History, Millennium Edition, is a study of the translations of the Bible from the time of Jerome (404 A.D.) to the publication of the Authorized Version in 1611. This book covers the Reformation in England, the reigns of King Henry VIII, Queen Elizabeth, and legislation during this time (1534-1662) frame. It is also a study (604-1750) of the historical, political, and the theological problems relating to Rome, the popes, councils, changes in England and Europe, and the rise of the Protestants and Non-Conformists (1382-1517). Many problems relating to the translations of the Bible into English, and Doctrines of the Roman Church, are also discussed in this book. This study covers (1382-1750) the development of the Vulgate, the translations of John Wycliffe, William Tyndale, Martin Luther, the Coverdale Bible, the Great Bible, the Bishops Bible, the Geneva Bible, the Matthews Bible, the Rheims-Douay Bible, and the Authorized Version. Related Bible translations, problems, and history are also discussed in this work. This study also explains the Inquisition (1184), the Great Schism of the Catholic Church (1309-1417), the Index (1557), the rise (1382-1689) of the Reformers, St. Bartholomew Days Massacre (1572), the printing of various Bibles (1526-1750) in English for Catholics and Protestants and movements in education and reform in England. The Reformers (1382-1611) faced many theological and political problems in trying to bring vernacular translations of the Scriptures to church members; this study explains many of these theological and historical issues. A bibliography is listed for further study on the subject. Cover photo by Author.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Apr 10, 2013
• ISBN: 9781477180518

John C. Greider

Dr. John C. Greider received his BA degree from the University of Georgia, MA degree from George Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, BD degree from New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary, and his Ph.D. degree in England from the University of Liverpool. He studied Classical Languages and Literature for two years in Germany at the University of Heidelberg, and an additional year on a Fulbright Scholarship in Greece at the University of Thessalonica. He is an Emeritus Professor of English at Kennesaw State University. Dr. John C. Greider is a Southern Baptist.

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Copyright © 2013 by John C. Greider, Ph.D.

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CONTENTS

Millennium Edition

I.   Legacy Of The Past

II.   A Time Of Change

III.   A New Beginning

IV.   Scriptures And Reformation

V.   Translations

Bibliography

Dedicated

To

Courtney, Wendel

&

Marilyn

For the Life and Love we Share Together

For Each Other

And the Happiness of

Times Gone Bye

Bless Be The Tie That Binds

Preface

MILLENNIUM EDITION

This Millennium Edition, 2013, is an enlarged and expanded edition of the Millennium Edition of 2008. The purpose of this book remains the same: a historical study of the translations of the Bible into English. It also seeks:

To Honor the Memory and Achievements of John Wycliffe, John Huss, William Tyndale, John Knox, Martin Luther, John Calvin, John Bunyan, John Foxe, John Wesley, Charles Wesley, and the Translators of the Authorized Version of 1611. These men will be remembered, honored, and loved as long as leaves fall from heaven. This work also endeavors to Honor all of those who Preach, Sing and Teach the Scriptures. It is a time for Silence, Reflection, and Personal Prayer.

Gratia Domini nostril Jesu Christi cum omnibus vorbis

Die Gnade des Herrn Jesus sei mit allen.

This work is a study of the translations of the Bible from the Legacy of the Past (405 A.D.) to the Authorized Version (1611). It is also a study of the history of the times in which various translations of the Bible were completed. All of the material in this study is a matter of historical record; it is for the researcher and student of the Bible to draw this material together for an understanding of the Scriptures being brought forth into English. The translators of the Bible faced many historical, political, and theological problems. The complete story, with all of its events, of the Bible being brought forth into English, and into other vernacular languages, remains an unresolved narrative. Its final story has not been recorded.

This book covers the Reformation in England, the reigns of King Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth, legislation during this time frame, plus a study of the historical, political, and theological problems relating to the development of the Vulgate, the translations of John Wycliffe and William Tyndale, the Coverdale Bible, the Great Bible, the Bishops’ Bible, the Geneva Bible, the Matthew’s Bible, the Rheims Douay Bible to the work of Richard Challoner in 1750. Related Bible translations and history are also discussed in this work.

This work would not have been possible without the help of many individuals. There is no way I can adequately thank those who have helped me in this study. The path to research with pencil and paper is time consuming, lonely, and difficult; it demands patience and understanding and faith on the part of many people. This path covered many lands, thousands of miles, hundreds of churches and byways. Seasons come and go. There was no one passage or one camp ground. There were pauses and delays. Silence. Sadness. Scenes that grip the heart, and when the tears have dried, the journey continues. Countless historical sites all over Europe were visited during the writing of this work; some places brought moments of happiness, others periods of reflection and sadness: grief and sorrow tied them all together; my life was blessed by a visit to those places. Soli Deo Honor et Gloria

This book would not have been possible without the understanding, support, patience, sacrifice, help, judgment, prayers, and love of my wife, Marilyn, and our two children, Courtney and Wendel; from time to time, traveling with me to and from Europe over many years and over thousands of miles, they made the journeying, sleeping on clouds of cotton, riding the rails, through acres of sun flowers and apples and olives, down canals, walks along the paths, over bridges and rivers, through crowded streets, terraces, seeing the tombs, monuments and paintings, down the aisles, sitting in silence, prayers, up and down stairs, the toll of bells, the glow of candles, the sounds of clocks, the taking of notes, the long days and nights, seeing sunsets and early dawns, silent nights, through rain and snow, all possible for the writing of this book. This work would never have seen the printer’s ink without their love. The Four of Us will never forget our days together and times gone bye: Auld Lang Syne. One lifetime is too short to thank our two children for the love they have given to us. This book was completed over many years of travel, research, and writing. Many stairs remain to be climbed; there is not enough time to turn over the hourglass. This book is my story; it covers many years or travel, hardships, research and writing; the manuscripts and documents, facts, historical testimonies and monuments brought me happiness and at time great sadness. Tomorrow is another day. Dreams do come true; prayers are answered. For those who have prayed for my family and me over the years, as we journeyed beyond the seas on pilgrimages and quests, I thank you. Deo gratias, Thanks be to God. Amazing Grace. While living and studying in Europe for many years, and later traveling to and from Europe for more than a quarter of a century doing research for this book, I always looked toward the sunshine so that the shadows would fall behind me. Deus Lux Mea Est; God is My Light. I want to thank numerous members of the clergy throughout Europe for helping me to find and document some of the material for this work. They have let me use their facilities and hostels to search for and read manuscripts, records, letters, correspondence, documents, and to handle and examine many historical items in numerous churches and museums in England, Ireland, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Turkey, and Greece. They let me verify my own research. Blessed are those who light candles, open doors, pray, study in unrestricted silence and wait for the dawn of a new day. I examined historical objects, documents, records, Scriptures, letters, accounts, and materials in scores of churches and museums over a number of years and over many miles and borders through hundreds of passages; no door was closed to me. Many of these items brought me happiness; some brought me sadness. Candles gave light in darkness. There was no Gate Keeper; there was no Toll Booth. For all of those clergy, academic teachers, friends, bookstores, and museum personnel who believed in my work, my research, and opened doors for me, I thank you. All of you blessed my life. My historical research and documents, travels and tours, were verified and proven true; it was an enriching academic and historical experience. Many new things were learned along the journey. I want to thank many clergymen in Rome for providing me with thousands of Latin and Greek documents, manuscripts and letters in their churches, and the benefit of consulting their vast libraries. The clergy learned much from my research. Records are a matter of history; the researcher must find and verify them. Not all historical documents of the past have been printed. An incoming tide does not raise all ships. I am indebted to public and private museums, private collections of books in homes and various shops, and numerous individuals, pastors, churches, hostels, and friends, for their assistance in helping me to locate numerous Bibles and publications. Records are presented throughout this work; they tell more than the text itself. Some Universities in the Realm, because of their facilities, services, and holdings, and for their help to researchers, and their commitment to tutorial-based and small group teaching to undergraduates and graduate students, stand on Holy Ground: The University of Liverpool and the University of Manchester. The University of Liverpool was founded as a Royal Institution in 1814; on the outer wall of the Victoria Building reads: For advancement of learning and ennoblement of life. Its faculty, staff and research facilities make it one of the finest universities in all of England and Europe. King John of England, 1167-1216, gave a Charter to the people of Liverpool to form a town in 1207; Liverpool celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007. King James I, 1566-1625, of England granted a Charter (1606-1624) to the Virginia Company in April 1606, and the 144 passengers and crew aboard three small boats, under the overall command of Captain Christopher Newport, the Susan Constant, the Discovery and the Godspeed, set sail on 20 December 1606 and arrived in the New World to establish Jamestown with 104 men on 14 May 1607; 400th Anniversary in 2007. On January 7, 1608, an accidental fire destroyed much of the Jamestown settlement in the Virginia Colony. The Pilgrims sailed from Plymouth, England, bound for the New World on 16 September 1620 and they reached Cape Cod on 9 November, and 102 Pilgrims stepped off the Mayflower on 21 December 1620. Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower went ashore for the first time at present day Plymouth, Mass. Resurgam, I will rise again. They brought with them copies of the Geneva Bible of 1560; printed in Geneva by Roland Hall. The text is in Roman type, double columns; 26 engravings and five maps. Gramercy, Great Thanks On February 8, 1693, a Charter was granted for the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia.

I would like to thank the British Museum, the British Library, Bodleian Library, the Louvre, the Vatican Museum, the University of Heidelberg, Germany, and the National Museum, Athens, for making available to me much historical information. Words cannot convey my appreciation to these museums, churches and libraries for making available to me manuscripts, papyrus, biblion, chartes, codex, biblia, vetus testamentum, novum testamentum, palaia diatheke, nea diatheke, incunabula, icons, paintings, woodcuts, and archaeological objects; also for manuscripts and letters and documents in Latin, Spanish, French, German, Italian, Greek and for unrestricted hours of study. I am indebted to many libraries; I thank them for their courtesy, understanding, and patience; Nights pass into days. All of this material is collaborated by history, archaeology, and comparative studies of literature. Many churches in Rome provided services for me.

The Vatican Library, Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana, was established by Pope Nicholas V, 1447-1455. He initially gathered 9,000 manuscripts; today the library contains diplomas, edicts, manuscripts, codices, parchments, bulls, registers, papal briefs, letters, and many Bible manuscripts; this material is not open to the public. Most of the clergy, men and women in Holy Orders, as well as many Cardinals, are not permitted to read, touch, see, or study this material. Protestants and non Roman Catholic churches are not permitted to see, study or consult any of this material. Today there are 53 miles of shelves in the Vatican Secret Archives. There are about 1.6 million volumes and 80,000 ancient manuscripts on these shelves; and countless incunabula printed before 1501.The library also has a copy of the Codex Vaticanus, one of the oldest extant manuscripts of the Greek Bible. See The Secret Language of Churches and Cathedrals, Richard Stemp, Duncan Baird Publishers, London, 2010. Also see: Inside the Vatican, By Bart McDowell, Prepared by the Book Division of the National Geographic Society, 2011, 259 pages.

The author of this book alone is responsible for this work. The doctrines, teachings, research and studies put forth in this work are those of the author, John C. Greider, and not those of any museum, library, church or institution acknowledged or named. This work seeks to honor Jesus Christ. The Christian has nothing to fear from humble, honest, and critical studies of history. The Child of God needs never to fear the criticisms of the faithless, for they have their reward. The Christian will endure to the End, to the Consummation of the Ages, be raised from the dead, given a new life, and will receive in that day a Crown of Glory from the Righteous Judge. The Author of this work is saved by grace through faith, by repentance and confession, in Jesus Christ. See Romans 3:10, 20, 23; Acts 17:30; Eph. 2: 8-9; John 3: 3, 16, 17, 36; John 14: 6; Acts 4:12; 16:31; Romans 5:1; 10: 9-10; John 21:22. Southern by Grace.

To all of those creatures, great and small, who have been with me in my study over the years in the writing of this work, I thank you for your presence and for your affection.

The Final Footnote: In memoriam: In Memory.

There is no good-bye. There is no good-bye to all of those who have died for their faith in Jesus Christ. From the Resurrection to the present time thousands of men, women, and children have perished for their belief in Christ. Their names are unknown, but their deaths stand as a monument to their faith. As the brightness of the sun comes forth each day, that light will never dim, nor clouds obscure, our love for them, or darken our memory of those who died as followers of the Man of Galilee. The sun will never set on those disciples. There is no sunset for them. They will never be forgotten. They will be remembered in perpetuity, in perpetuum. Forever. Legends never die. The memory of the life and death of those you love will never fade; their presence remains. True love never perishes. To those pilgrims alive today, saved by grace through faith, which silently walk by faith along the highways and byways of life, they are the spiritual heirs of those who perished in the past for their beliefs; let your light so shine that it will illuminate the way for others to walk along the same trails. If you seek their monument, look around you. There is a campsite ahead. There is no good-bye to those you love; there is no separation from those who love you. From the waters of the Thames, through the Rhine, the Seine, Loire, Po, Elbe, Danube, to the shores of the Tiber, the strength and faith, devotion to truth, of the Bible translators who died for their writings, will never fade from our memory. Their spirit still flows in these lands and in those waters. Time will not diminish, nor history fade, the love, respect, honor, and gratitude Christians have for those who translated the Bible into English. Water will not wash away their achievements, fade their writings, or erode the greatness of their works. This paragraph has a conclusion, but its message has no end. To the Calvinists, the Huguenots, and the Protestants, we owe a debt of gratitude; our lives today would not be the same had the leaders of these movements never lived and died for their beliefs. Bless be the tie that binds. There is no good-bye to them. There is no darkness for them. They remain a silent reminder of the testimony of the past, and a source of strength for the living. There is no night for them. There is no departure. There is no farewell. There is no good-bye.

John C. Greider, Ph.D. Ab Imo Pectore-Alpha

31 May 2003; 20 April 2004; 13 May 1955.

1-13 August 2004; 13 May 2005.

6 February-30 October 2006.

7 May 2007. 12 April 2007.

9 June 2007, 10 December 2007.

26 December 2008. Anno Domini; 24 Nov. 2011.

I August 2013

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I

LEGACY OF THE PAST

The Bible played an important part in shaping the history of the English nation and the English Church. A study of the translations of the Bible into English is a study of the history of the English Church. Christians lived in England from about 200 A.D., but it was not until the arrival of Augustine of Canterbury (d.c.605 A.D.) in 597 that a systematic process began of converting the people to Christianity. (For the early spread of Christianity throughout the regions, see, Tertullian, c.160-225 A.D., Adversus Judaeos, c.7; Irenaeus, c. 130-200, Adversus omnes Haereses, ed. by Erasmus, 1455-1536, Basel, 1526; Origen, c.185-254 A.D.) The exact date when Christians first came to England is not known; it is veiled in obscurity. The Cross-was, memento mori, a reminder of the life and death of Jesus Christ. When Augustine arrived in Kent, he was greeted with kindness (philophronos) by King Ethelbert, of Kent, and his wife, Bertha. He later baptized (1 June 597 A.D.) this king and his court. Augustine was buried (entaphiasmos) in Canterbury, Kent. There were a number of theological controversies in England. At the Synod of Whitby in 664, most of the different factions of Christianity (Irish-Iona-Celtic) within England were settled in favor of Roman Catholic (325) practices. (See, St. Bede, c. 673-735 A.D., Historia Ecclesiastica, and his De Temporum Ratione.) One of the primary controversies centered on the date for the celebration, anastasis, of Easter, Pascha. In the Roman tradition, Easter was traditionally celebrated after (21 March) the vernal equinox. The Council of Nicaea, summoned by the Emperor Constantine, d.337 A.D., initially settled this Paschal Controversy in (20 May-25 July-25 August) 325 A.D.The first mention of Lent (lencten, spring) was in 325 A.D. The whole of England accepted (apodektos) this Roman custom by 669. (This debate went on within the expanded Christian community until 672-703-718 A.D.) (For a study of the Councils, See the works of Jean Hardouin, 1646-1729, Conciliorum Collectio Regia Maxima, Paris, 1715). Most of the people of England had heard the Gospel preached in their, glossa, own language by 675; the land had been evangelized. Roman soldiers, some who were Christians, brought (77-407 AD) Christianity to England; they had truth, aletheia, and articles of faith, articuli fidei; Auctor primaries Scripturae Sacrae; Authoritas Scripturae. Traders and merchants also helped, ergazomai, in the process of bringing the message of Christ to England. They helped to plant the seed of faith, semen fidei, to grow, Auxano, to grow, increase, and build a community of the faithful, communion fidelium. There were some agnostics; a, not, and theo, god, there is no god. See the Annals of Tacitus, born c. 55 A.D., for his writings about early Christian history. The traditional date for the Founding of Rome was 21 April 753 B.C. Ab urbe condita, From the Founding of the City, The Roman Ruler, Caracalla, 212-217 A.D., extended (Constitutio Antoniniana) citizenship to all free inhabitants of his empire. Julius Caesar, 102-15 March 44 B.C., invaded Britain on 27 August 55 B.C. Veni, Vidi, Cici, I came, I saw, I conquered. A larger Roman army again invaded Britain on 6 July 54 B.C.; the Romans evacuated Britain in 407 A.D.; and the end of the Empire in the West came on 4 Sept. 476 A.D. Roma aeterna, Eternal Rome. The Roman Empire was one of the greatest empires of all times. Finis coronat opus. The end crowns the work. The glory of Greece and the fame of her inhabitants are well known; Gloria Graeciae et fama incolarum suarum sunt clarae. For an understanding of the classical world and its literary heritage, see: M.C. Howatson, editor, The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature, second edition, 2005; and The Oxford History of the Classical World, edited by John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray, 1986. Alexander the Great, born on 20 July 356 B.C.in Pella, Macedonia, who had Aristotle, 384-322 B.C., as a teacher, and who carried a copy of Homer’s Iliad into battle, was one of the greatest of Greek leaders of antiquity; he extended the glory of Greek culture and civilization; he died in 323 B.C. The construction of Hadrian’s Wall began on 13 September 122 A.D. The Romans brought with them schools, reading and writing, to England; later the clergy established centers for learning. In the Post-Roman period, schools were part of monasteries; by 1200 A.D. there were many schools throughout England. London became the administrative capital of Britain by 60 A.D. In Rome, families claiming to be the descendants of a common ancestor were known as a gens or clan; the head of each gens was called a pater, father, and the members of these early clans came to be known as Patricians; they were the aristocrats. The Plebeians, from plebs, meaning common folks. The Roman Senate was composed of old men, from the Latin word senex, meaning old man. The Patrician was the only citizen of Rome. The land of Italy went through many civil wars from 1831 to 1871; Rome became the capital of Italy in July 1871. Constantinople fell on 6 April-29 May 1453. Others who helped (sullambano) in this process in England were: St. Birinus (d. c. 650), first Bishop of Dorchester (635), who converted the West Saxon King, Cynegils, in 634; in 635 came St. Aidan (d. 31 Aug. 651), Bishop of Lindisfarne (635), to preach and teach in Northumbria; and in 635 came St. Cedd, Bishop of the East Saxons (654), to minister to the Middle Angles; he died of the plague on 26 October 664. Aldhelm, 640-709, Bishop of Sherborne; Chad (brother of St. Cedd), d. c. 672, Bishop of Lindisfarne; Paulinus, d. c. 664, Bishop of York, converted (627) Edwin, King of Northunbria, and many of his followers; Benedict Biscop, 628-690, Benedictin monk; and Theodore of Canterbury, 668-689 A.D., all made many contributions to the development of the early Christian church in England. Boniface, c.675-754, worked mostly in Germany as a missionary, English by birth, but he had a great influence on the church in England. Most of the missionary work in England was done by preaching (evangelisasthai) and teaching (didasko) the Scriptures rather than people reading the Scriptures for themselves, since the majority of people could not read or write. Christians always (proseuchomai) prayed, Matthew 6:9-13, and they desired to always be faithful (simper fidelis) to the teachings, testimony, marturion, of the Scriptures. Christians saw themselves as a communion of the faithful (communion fidelium), as a body of believers, as members of those who obtained grace, justificatio, justification, through the righteousness (dikaiosune) of Christ. At once righteous and a sinner, simul justus et peccator. (For a history of this period, see: R.H. Hodgkin, A History of the Anglo-Saxons, 2 vols, 1935; C. Plummer, Baedae Opera Historica, 1896; also, see: John Foxe, Acts and Monuments of the Church, 1554, 1843, 8 vols., London.). See: Historic Illustrations of the Bible, Fisher, Son, & Co., London, Liverpool, and Paris.1840. For liturgical information, see: Rock, Daniel, The Church of Our Fathers, 4 vols., 1905. Also see: Kent, William, ed., An Encyclopedia of London, 1937; Howe, G. Melvyn, Man, Environment and Disease in Britain, 1976. The Roman writer Tertullian, c.160-225 A.D., a pagan converted to Christianity believed that Christian should separate themselves from pagan society to avoid idolatry and immorality; they may have to die for their faith: the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.

Only faith in Christ can establish the members of a church, Sola fides in Christum membra ecclesiae constituit. Lift up your hearts, sursum corda. The development, growth, auxano, of the Christian Church in England (Angle-Land) went through a period from 407 A.D., when the Roman soldiers left England, to 597 A.D. of wars, conflicts, military campaigns, invasions, and lawlessness with the invasion over the years of the Kelts, Gauls, Picts, Scots, Angles, Saxons, Welsh, Irish, Slavs, Jutes, Frisians, and Teutonic tribes. The Romans gave Britons/English/Saxons good laws and a strong government; however, the departure of the Romans brought unrest and disorder to England. See the Letters, Registrum Epistularum, of Pope Gregory I, 590-604 A.D. A lot of the history of this period is buried in obscurity. The early kingdoms (449-586 A.D.) in Britain were the Kingdoms of Kent (449 A.D.), Sussex (477 A.D.), Wessex (495 A.D.), Essex (527 A.D.), Northumbria (547 A.D.), East Anglia (575 A.D.), and Mercia (586 A.D.); the boundaries of these kingdoms were not definitely established, as warfare (607-960 A.D.) between the tribes remained a constant threat to each kingdom. The people in Britain worshipped many gods before the arrival of Christianity. They did not know Jesus, the Son of God, hyios tou theou, His Righteousness, dikaiosyne, or His Resurrection, anastasis. It was from Jerusalem and Antioch that the Gospels first reached Rome (Acts 1:4; 2:41-47), then to Samaria (Acts 8:14, and on to Antioch (Acts 11:20); from Rome to England through Augustine (597 A.D.). Pope Gregory I, 3 September 590 to 12 March 604 A.D. never saw himself as a Universal or Infallible Church leader; he believed he was only a Priest; he was not without sin, anamartetos. There was no Church leader to obey (eisakouo) beyond the walls of his own church. See his Letters to the Patriarch of Alexandria, Epistle v. 43, viii. 30; to the Patriarch of Antioch, Epistle vii. 27; v.20; vii.33; he did not see himself as a Universal Bishop, Epistle viii.30, nor did he see himself as a Universal Apostle. He did not see himself as receiving any type of special Ordination or Consecration from Peter. He had no Divine Message to transmit to others: epistello. See his writings, Maurists, 4 vols., Paris, 1704. Pope Gregory (604 A.D.), Rome, the Church in Rome, never saw the missionary work in England as an area where he claimed jurisdiction over all converts; see: William Bright, 1824-1901, Early English Church History, 1878; many Christian churches (225-865-1215 A.D.) repudiated, rejected (apotheo), the claims of Rome over their churches; see: Synod of Carthage, 255 A.D., Council of Sardica, 347 A.D., and Synod of Carthage, 419-422 A.D.; Also, see: John Lingard, 1771-1851, History of England, 1855, vol. 2, v, p.181; vi., pp.205-209. Note: No Canon or Act from any Council or Synod whatsoever bestowed any direct theological authority on the Roman See, Clergy, Pope, Papacy, or the Church in Rome until the Lateran Council of 1215 A.D.; some churches asked the Roman See, Clergy, to hear some Appeals from clergy and laity regarding church rank, but no theological power or concessions from other churches were granted to the Clergy in Rome. There was no reference to Papal Authority (225-1564) when Appeals (Epikaleo) were made to Rome by some churches throughout the Empire. There were hundreds of Christian churches throughout the Roman Empire. Dominus providebit, The Lord will provide. The first Jewish Christians knew Baptism as tevilah, a ritual ceremony for the purpose of purification from contact with various sources of uncleanness. There was no general Council (sumboulion) at all in the Christian Church until (Nicaea) 325 A.D. No reference to absolute (Prosagoge) Papal Authority over all other Christian churches throughout Europe, the old Roman Empire, can be found in any Creed, Papal Letters, Vatican Documents, or Bulls until 1564, during the time of Pope Pius IV, 1499-1565. (Note: Throughout the Roman Empire, 225-1564 A.D., from (the Franks to the East Goths), Gaul to Italy, Macedonia, Thrace, Cappadocia, to Syria, Aramenia, Dalmatia, Swabia, Bavaria, to Cairo, there were many Christian churches, Roman Catholic churches, as well as churches not related to Rome, that were served by Laity, men of great piety, theorebeia, who took over churches when clergy, heralds, preachers (kekux) or priests, were not available; many churches had Laity (people of God) who served the churches as pastors and priests, when a shortage of clergy came upon the land; many clergy objected to the Laity acting as pastors of churches, and thus, appealed to Rome in 1215 A.D. to correct this practice; however, the historical reality is that many Laity, non-ordained men, took upon themselves (cognitio) the responsibility to serve as pastors, shepherds, poimen, of churches.; Rome, the Papacy, never objected to this practice in historical times (See Councils of 325, 381, 431, 451, 553, 680, 787, and 869 A.D.); there was no Ordination or Consecration problem for these (Ecclesiola) independent Christian churches; the ordained clergy objected to the Laity, people of God serving as priest in many of these churches; the church (coetus electorum, the assembly of the elect, faithful) members approved of this practice, and the Laity, since someone continued to preach the Scriptures to them night and day (nuchthemeros); this was a very common practice (c.100-869 A.D.) in many Christian churches throughout the Roman Empire; when a Territory, Unit, Diocese or Parish, an area served by a church, had no priests, or clergy, the Laity took the responsibility to lead the church, congregation, "Ekklesia", members in worship (Latria) services (Sola Scripture, Scripture alone) and the Laity performed all the ceremonies (Baptism, Baptismus, Lord’s Supper, Coena Sacra, kyriakon deipnon) necessary for the church; many of these men were never ordained. The Laity did not believe that it was the order of the decrees of God, ordo decretorum Dei, that only the priests could preach to church members. Prayer, euchomai, and meditation, meletao, make a teacher. Only faith in Christ can establish members of the church, Sola fides in Christum membra ecclesiae constituit. The breaking of bread (klasis tou artou) was always important to Christians. To the Laity, such an action was a Law of Nature, Lex Naturae, a moral law impressed on them by God. These Christians believed, Pisteuo, in Imputed Righteousness, Justitia Imputata; the righteousness of Christ (Corpus electorum, body of the elect) which is counted or Imputed to believers on the ground of faith in Christ, without works, ergon, of any kind, or baptism; it is a righteousness given to sinners by grace; the Laity in many Christian churches (Communio Sanctorum, a body of believers) preached such a doctrine (doctrina divina) to their church members. Untold numbers of people heard the Scriptures from these dedicated Laity; Laus Deo; there were no General Church Councils until the Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D., so the independent Christian churches throughout the Roman Empire used their own resources, skills, reserve, to supply their own pastors and church leaders. Dominus illuminatio mea, The Lord is my Light. Praise be to God, Laus Deo. The Holy Spirit worked within these churches: Testimonium internum Spiritus Sancti. By Faith alone, sola fide; by Grace alone, sola gratia; by Scripture alone, sola scriptura; by Christ alone, sola Christo. Christians were the salt (halas) of the earth. (Mark 9:50; Matt 5:13); they were faithful to the urn, to death: fidelis ad urnam. There was no control over these churches by Rome, the Papacy, or Popes. Apostolic Succession was unknown to these churches. Superiority among different pastors, bishops, deacons, presbyters, church leaders, and clergymen was of human origin. Throughout the lands of the Roman Empire, in small towns, villages, and settlements, the Roman Catholic Church had no priests or clergymen, or bishops, for there was always the problem of having educated, responsible, priests from Rome who knew the languages in all of the areas in which there were churches; for example, in England during the time of King Henry VIII, 1491-1547, there was a shortage of priests in England who spoke English and many clergymen were uneducated and could not read or write in any language. Extensive documentation is on this subject: See the writings of: Mione, Maugur Ferraris, Tyberim, Martii, Grisar, Ferritti, Riccius, Patrizi, Bartolini, and Stephano: Documenta ab Apostolica, Vatican Archives. The word pope derives from an old Latin word, papa, pappas, and the Greek word papas, meaning, father. The earliest instance of it being connected to a Bishop in Rome is found in an inscription, epigrapho, dating from the time of Bishop Marcellus, c. 307-309 A.D. Bishop Sirieius, 384-399 of Rome, used the title in correspondence to other church officials. The title (pope) did not carry with it any type of supremacy in theological matters. Christians spread (415-774 A.D.) into new areas of Europe: Christians worked among the Visigoths (415-711) in Spain and Southern Gaul; with the Ostrogoths (493-555) in Italy; with the Burgundians (441-535) in Southeastern Gaul; the Vandals (429-533) in North Africa; the Kingdom of the Franks under the Morovingians (486-752); the Lombards (586-774) in Northern Italy; with the Angles, Saxons and Jutes (433-485) in Germany, South Britain, and Denmark. The exemplary life, megaloprepes, of the Christians in all of these areas, even when they were slaves, won many converts, epistrepho, to the Christian faith; the Holy Spirit, the Word of God, Verbum Dei, guided the Christian ministers and teachers in all of these areas of Europe. There were many able, educated, skilled preachers: Virbonus dicendi peritus. The Communion of the Faithful, Communio fidelium, held the churches together throughout the years and centuries. The ministers and clergy, servants of the Lord, ministrants inter Christianos, went throughout the land, ubiquitas, everywhere, all over Europe, where there was a need for their preaching and work. Christians would be persecuted from 35-70-135 AD onward for centuries to come; there would be a Holocaust: Holokauston, Holos, whole, kaustos, burned; Christians would be a burnt offering for non-believers. An Apostle, apostello, is a sent forth person; he goes as a messenger to preach, serves, and work for the spread of the truths of the Bible and the teachings of Christ. A Bishop, episkopos, is a guardian, or overseer. A Presbyter, presbeuois, is an elder, older, and an ambassador. An Elder, presbuteros, is an elder or eldest person, a person advanced in age. A presbuterion is an assembly of aged men. A Deacon, diakonos, (read Cyprian, d.c.258 A.D., Letters, lxiv, for information about early deacons.) is one who serves, a servant. A Prophet speaks forth, pro, for, phemi, speak. Not any of these titles implied Apostolic Succession or absolute theological authority or power over Christian churches. There was an openness, parrhesia, of association between, among, all of these church workers. No church was an orphan, orphanos. Jesous Christos was King, Lord, kyrios, the Morning Star, phosphoros. Fidelity and Confidence, fideet fiducia, with Faith and Love, fide et amore, came converts to Christ. The Cross is the touchstone of faith: fidei coticula crux. Christ is the Foundation of Faith, fundamentum fidei. Christianity is not a Ceremonial Law, lex ceremonialis. A Disciple, mathetes, is one who has heard the call (peithomai) of Jesus and follows, mimeomai Him. A Disciple is also a learner, pupil, mathetes. Christians enjoy having (echo) fellowship (koinonia) and singing (Ado) with each other. A man and a woman came to a marriage untouched, virgo intacta. Amen, truly. Adeste Fideles, O come all ye faithful. Where the Spirit is, there is the Church; Ubi Spiritus, ibi Ecclesia".

For information (Ginosko) about the early Christians and the flight of the

Disciples, Read: Justin Martyr, c. 100-c.160 A.D., Apologies, i.50, 12, and Dialogues, 106,107. For three leaders of Christianity in Africa, read the works of Tertullian, c.160-c.225 A.D., Cyprian, d.258 A.D., and the Confessions and The City of God of Augustine, born on 13 November 354-28 August 430 A.D. For additional information about early Christians, Read: Diocletian, Roman Emperor, 245-313 A.D; C. Plummer, Baedae Opera Historica, 1896; R.G. Collingwood and J.N. L. Myres, Roman Britain, 1937. The early centers (30-135 A.D.) of Christianity were in Jerusalem, Antioch (Acts 11:19-26) in Syria, and in Ephesus. See Acts 1:8; Matthew 28:18-20; Mark 16:15-16; Luke 24:47-48; John 20:21-22.The city of Rome burned from 19-24 July 64 A.D.; The Christians were blamed for the fire, and persecution started immediately. The Sadducees (see Acts 4: 4; 5:17-42; 7:57-8:3) and Pharisees were responsible for some persecution of the Christians, See Acts 13:50; 14:2; 14:19; 17: 5-14; 21:26-30; John 1:11. The disciples were first called Christians in Antioch; Acts 11:26. For a study of the Jews, read, study, the First Book of Maccabees for material about 175-135 B.C., and the Second Book of Maccabees for the years 175-161 B.C. Study A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, by Emil Schurer, 1890, 1994, 5 vols. For Jewish archaeology, see Ugolini, Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrum, 34 vols., Venice, 1774-1769.

For a study of early Christian behavior and virtues, faith, humility, and chastity, see The Shepherd of Hermas, c.150-150 A.D.; also see the Epistle of St. Clement, c.96 A. D.; St.Ignatius, c. 35-107 A. D.; Eusebius, 260-340 A. D., Bishop of Caesarea,; and the writings (Jewish Wars and Antiquities of the Jews) of the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, 37-100 A.D. Jews living outside (Diaspora, Diaspeiro, to scatter abroad) of Palestine (70-135 A.D.), often called Hellenists, went to Syria, Greece, Asia Minor and Egypt; they adopted the Greek language, had Greek names, and were responsible for the Septuagint, 285-246 A.D., a Greek translation of the Old Testament made in Alexandria (for the Library of Ptolemy Philadelphus). Read the fragments (Expositions) of Papias, c.60-130 A.D., Bishop of Hierapolis. The soldiers of Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the first Temple on 15 July 586 B.C. (For the first Temple, see I Kings 5-8; the Temple was destroyed again in 70 A.D.) The Temple in Jerusalem was rebuilt in 520-516 B. C. Study the Epistle to Diognetus, c. 150 A.D.; it is a description of early Christianity; an early manuscript of this document was destroyed in the Franco-German war of 1870. Study the Muratorian Canon, the oldest extant list of New Testament writings, c. 1550-170 A.D.; it was first published in Milan in 1740. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, sanctioned this list in 367 A.D. The Third Council of Carthage approved of this list in 397 A.D. There was no Index librorum prohibitorum for early Christians. (For further historical study of the Canon of the New Testament, see the writings of the following men: Westcott, Robinson, Lightfoot, Gore, Whitham, Swete, Gibson, and Brighman.). The Lord is my light; Dominus illuminatio mea.

Roman army officers, plus ordinary soldiers, when they first invaded Britain in 55 B.C. until they left in 407 A.D., were greatly impressed and affected with the young people, 10 to 15 years old, they found throughout the land. They had never seen so many fine (Teknon) children. Their fair skin, blond to light brown hair, blue eyes, overall good health and physical appearance, koinonia, intelligence, and their ability, dunamis, to learn new crafts and trades moved them. They were much loved, enfants cheris. The army officers sent to Rome, over a period of 400 years, from 55 B.C. to 407 A.D., thousands of young people, against their will, as maids and servants (doulos) to work in the houses of prominent Roman families. They were sent as slaves, but treated in Rome as (doulos, bondservants) servants in wealthy families. Over the years, both the boys and girls (gameo) married Romans and were absorbed (prosagoge) into Roman culture. Point d’honneur, a code of honor. Some of the boys, as they became older, joined the Roman army. They never returned to Britain. Romans were monogamous, as were the Greeks. The Roman army did not send children to Rome from Armenia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Mesopotamia, Syria or Arabia. Very few Roman soldiers remained in Britain after 407 A.D. On 10 July 1212 a great fire destroyed much of London. (The Black Death arrived in England in1348 and in 1361 and carried away about a third to a half of the population). Roman soldiers believed, A.U.C., from the founding of the city, ab urbe condita, 753 B.C., that it was an honor to die for their country, dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. For the origin of migrating tribes, and North German tribes, into England, see: H. Munro Chadwick, The Origins of the English Nation, 1907; also, the account by Julius Caesar, 102-15 March 44 B.C., in his work, Comm. De.Bello Gallico, VI. 21. Four original copies of the Magna Carta of 1215 of King John of England, 1167-1216, survive: One is in the Lincoln Cathedral, one in Salisbury Cathedral, and two copies in the British Library.

The Roman Empire: The Roman Empire was founded on 21 April 753 B.C. Ab urbe condita, A.U. C., from the founding of the city For a history of Rome, read: Theodor Mommsen, 1817-1903, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 1863, and his Romische Geschichte, 1854-1856, English translation in 1862-1866, also his Romisches Staatrecht, 1871-1888. For a comprehensive guide to Romans and Greeks, see: John Hazel, Who’s Who in the Roman World, 2001, 2005, 2006; John Hazel, Who’s Who in the Greek World, 2000, 2005, 2006. For a study of historical sites, a panorama of history in England and beyond, see: Clive Aslet, Landmarks of Britain, 2005.

The Romans divided time into years and months. According to tradition, the original Calendar under Romulus, 753-717, King of Rome consisted of ten (10) months; King Numa Pompilius, King of Rome, 715-673, added two (2) months (Jan.& Feb.), making the year contain 12 months. The normal year, before 47 B.C, was 355 days divided into twelve (12) months, starting in March. The Pontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion, was responsible for the Calendar. This 355-Day year was March, May, July, and October had 31 days; February had 28 and the other months each had 29 days. Julius Caesar, 102-44 B.C., in 46 B. C. reformed the Calendar on 1 January 45 B.C. bringing the year to 365 days instead of 355; every four (4) years an extra day was added between 23 and 24 February. The average length of the Julian Calendar, for the earth to go around the sun, was 365 1/4 days. After much study, astronomers calculated a discrepancy in the revolution of the earth around the sun, 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes, not 365 days 6 hours as in the Julian Calendar in a year; In 1582 Pope Gregory XIII, 13 May 1572-10 April1585, dropped ten (10) days from the Calendar; October 4, 1582 was followed by 15 October. February had 29 days instead of adding an extra day between 23 and 24 February under the Julian Calendar. Pope Gregory issued a Bull, Inter gravissimas, on 24 Feb. 1582, dropping 10 days from the Calendar; the Leap Year comes every four (4) years to correct the Lunar Year. England accepted the Gregorian Calendar in 1752.

The seven (7) Kings, Rex, of Rome were: Romulus, 753-717 B.C.; Numa Pompilius, 715-673 B.C.; Tullus Hostilius, 673-642 B.C.; Ancus, Marcius, 642-617 B.C.; Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, 616-579 B.C.; Servius Tullius, 578-535 B.C.; and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, 535-51110 B.C. Rome became a Republic in 509 B.C. Rome was built on seven (7) hills. These seven (7) hills were: Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Aventine, Palatine, and Capitoline. Urbs Roma septem reges habuit.

Between the Romans and the Greeks, 753 B.C.-476 A.D., there were about 25 major gods, and about 30 minor gods. They range from Zeus, Jupiter, Poseidon, Aphrodite, Athena, Mercury, Apollo, to Hermes. When a Roman died, a coin was put in his/her mouth and the ferry man, Charon, rowed them across/down the river Styx in the underworld to the Elysian Fields where they rested for all times. The coin was a gratuity, Trinkgeld, for Charon.

Greek and Roman writers from about 500B.C. to 150 A.D. Study the writings, works, of these men; a rewarding experience will follow your academic life. Aeschylus, a Greek tragic poet, 525-456 B.C.; Sophocles, a Greek tragic writer, 496-406 B.C.; Euripides, a Greek tragic writer, 480-406 B.C.; Herodotus, a Greek historian, 480-525 B.C.; Thucydides, a Greek historian, 460-400 B.C.; Socrates, a Greek philosopher 469-399 B.C.; Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, 384-322 B.C.; Epicurus, a Greek philosopher, 341-270 B.C.; Ennius, a Greek poet, 239-169 B.C.; Aristophanes, head of the Alexandrian Library, c. 195 B.C.; Demosthenes, Athenian orator, 383-322 B.C.; Horace, a Roman poet, 65-8 B.C.; Virgil, Roman poet, 70-19 B.C.; Catullus, Roman poet, 84-54 B.C.;Tacitus, Roman historian, 55-117 A.D. ; Philo, a Greek philosopher, fl.c. 40 A.D.; Epictetus, philosopher, 60-140 A.D.; and Juvenal, a Roman satirist, c.60-140 A.D.

The Ten Tribes were taken into Assyria in 740-722 B.C. The Two Tribes were taken into Babylonia in 605-586-582 B.C. Some Jews returned to Jerusalem (c.50, 000) in 536-457-444 B.C.; many Jews refused to return to Palestine from Assyria and Babylonia; they were traders and merchants, wealthy and affluent, and active in the commercial life of Assyria and Babylonia; They preferred the affluence they had in captivity over the spiritual life in Palestine, their spiritual home. The Jews were told to separate yourself, put away, your foreign wives; See Ezra 9:1-15; 10:1-19. The Temple was destroyed in 586 B.C.; it was rebuilt in 520-516 B.C., and destroyed again in 70 A.D. Alexander the Great, 356-323 B.C., brought Palestine under his control; he founded in 331 B.C. (on the north coast of Egypt) Alexandria. The Jews were widely distributed throughout the area, to Asia Minor, Palestine, Chaldea, Macedonia, Libya, Media, Egypt, Arabia, Persia, Syria, Mesopotamia, and around the Mediterranean Sea. See Act 2:9-11. For further information, critical material, see the following writers: Clement of Rome, Bishop of Rome, c. 95 A.D.; Ignatius of Antioch, Bishop of Antioch, c. 35-107 A.D.; Justin Martyr, Christian Apologist, c. 100-165 A.D.; Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, c. 130-202 A.D.; Origen, Alexandrian writer, c. 185-254 A.D.; Tertullian, African Church Father, c. 160-220 A.D.; and the writings of Flavius Josephus, Jewish historian, c. 37-100 A.D.; all of this material is in the Vatican Library, Rome: NOTE: to read, study some of these books, material, in Latin and/or Greek, because of the inserts in the books, a special permesso (permission, approval) is required from a Bishop in Rome: this may (or may not) be obtained, after a lengthy wait, delay, for months; permission must be obtained in writing from the Basilica of St. Mary Major, in Rome on 5 August of each year; the Vatican Library will then decide when one may read the requested materials. (I was (John C. Greider) a particeps, partaker, in this long process.). Gaudeamus igitur juvenes dum sumus, Let us therefore rejoice while we are young. (Thank you St. Mary Major)

The Council of Hertford (24 September 673), under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus (c.668-690), helped to reorganize (10 canons) the entire structure of the Church in England; Theodore helped (679) to unify the total framework of the priests, bishops, liturgy, and patterns of belief and worship throughout the land. (See, the Penitentiale, c. 680 A.D. of Theodore; this work printed in A.W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents, iii, pp.173-213, 1871). These two Council meetings (673, 679) were the first time that the leaders of the Church in England had meetings to systematize, arrange, their own Church. St. Wilfrid, (634-709), Bishop of York, c. 664, helped to bring the Celtic beliefs into line with Roman usage. There was also a shortage of written Scriptures. There was no complete Old Testament in Hebrew written before c.950 A.D. The Septuagint, a Greek version (methistemi) of the Hebrew Old Testament, written between 250-132 B.C., was the basic Scripture for the early Disciples and Apostles. There was no great need at this time (650) for translations of the whole Bible into any given English dialect; certain portions of the Scriptures were put into local scripts. There was no complete Bible (597-1066) in Anglo-Saxon, Old English, Norman French, or Middle English (597-1066-1382) during this time. There were very few complete copies of the entire Bible in any language (Latin or Greek) throughout the land. (See, Gregory, 598 A.D., Epistularum, xi.). The books of the Bible in England at this time consisted of miscellaneous fragments of Scriptures. Over the years (800-1300), and with the passing of time, Scriptures in English became more in demand by the people and clergy. Portions of the Gospels (664-1066) often appeared in various dialects, glosses, songs, and poems. St.