American Society of Missiology Monograph Series

The mission to the Gentiles and their conversion into the church gave rise to conflict in the early Christian community. Acts 11:1-18 indicates that there was clearly dissension over the issue of Peter going to the house of Cornelius and participating in table fellowship with him. The issue was no small matter, since it could have split the church. How then does Luke portray the resolution of the conflict? Instead of writing a long theological treatise, the author employs the art of storytelling. The study of Luke-Acts has long been dominated by historical-critical methods, focusing on Luke as a historian and theologian. This work, however, proposes a paradigm shift by looking at Luke as a storyteller. Since narrative criticism is concerned with the work of the writer as author and not simply redactor, and since it treats narrative precisely as narrative, the time has come to apply the narrative-critical approach to Acts 10:1--11:18. This approach explores a different set of questions: What is the story of Peter and Cornelius about? How is the story told? What effect does the story have on the reader and why?

In many oral cultures local proverbs are highly regarded for their wisdom and prized for their aesthetic expression. In this study Jay Moon provides an in-depth look at the use of local proverbs among the Builsa culture of Ghana, West Africa. In particular, the author's research shows how local proverbs can facilitate contextualized expressions of Christianity that are both biblically authentic and culturally relevant. The process of initiating and sustaining this form of expression is explicated with the help of an engaging narrative, providing valuable insights for those striving for genuine and meaningful expression of Christ in culture. This study will be especially beneficial to the missionary community, particularly for the purposes of appreciating oral literature in primary oral cultures, finding proper roles in the contextualization process, identifying cultural values via the window of local proverbs, training missionaries in cultural understanding, and tailoring discipleship training to incorporate significant aspects of orality

Perhaps no era in Christian history since the time of the apostles presented a greater challenge to the spread of faith than the twentieth century. The First World War in particular resulted in nearly disastrous losses for the world mission movement. Christian countries were engaged in fratricidal conflict, missionaries were forced to return to their homelands, and traditional sources of mission funding dried up. In response to the missions crisis, American Catholic youth devoted themselves to a program of "prayer, study, and sacrifice"--the Catholic Students' Mission Crusade. Beginning with less than fifty members, the movement grew to over one million youth, and worked to foster support for missionaries in the field, promote missionary vocations, and educate youth about the needs of the church throughout the world. In the course of their "crusade," the movement's youth were exposed the complexities and challenges of diverse religious, political, and cultural worlds, including illiteracy in rural America, communism in China and Eastern Europe, and famine and disease in sub-Saharan Africa. In light of this experience, as well as the Second Vatican Council's reformulation of the Catholic Church's approach to missions, by the late 1960s the movement began to question its goal of converting the world, leading to the Crusade's crisis of faith and eventually to its disbanding. By exploring the fascinating story of the Catholic Students' Mission Crusade, this study offers new insights into the growth of the church amidst contemporary obstacles and historically non-Christian cultures, providing a bridge to understanding the current challenges to Christian globalization.

Ecumenism in postwar Asia, institutionalized in the Christian Conference of Asia, displayed a remarkable this-worldliness from its inception in the 1940s. This tendency was in contrast to the tension between the church-centric and world-centric approaches to Christian mission that marked conciliar mission thinking in the West. This work examines the development of such this-worldly holiness in Asian ecumenism, focusing on M. M. Thomas of India and C. S. Song from Taiwan. Special attention is drawn to the idea of "God's this-worldly presence" that considers God as redemptively at work in world history apart from the church. The study first compares the development of this-worldly holiness in the West and Asia and then examines the thinking of Thomas and Song. The chapters on these two theologians discuss their backgrounds, the basic concerns motivating their intellectual searches, and responses to the questions arising from such concerns. These chapters also try to understand how these theologians view the relationship between God and the world. In so doing, the study highlights the significance of the idea of God's this-worldly presence shared by Thomas and Song in spite of differences in their backgrounds, approaches, and theological formulations. Having compared Thomas and Song, the study concludes that the idea of God's this-worldly presence became central to Asian ecumenism because it offered a common unifying vision to Asian Christians who come from a region characterized by tremendous diversity. The idea helped them to see the diverse peoples, cultures, and religions in Asia under one God who transcends the diversity and still takes it seriously.

In a globalized world and an "age that cannot name itself," how do Christian communities sustain a recognizable gospel identity? How might examining tradition and identity formation from both theology and cultural anthropology help churches approach the challenges of being a follower of Jesus today? With these questions in focus, Colleen Mallon studies symbol systems in the works of anthropologists Mary Douglas, Victor Turner, and Clifford Geertz and places her findings in dialogue with a "thick description" of discipleship gleaned from the great Roman Catholic ecclesiologist Yves Congar, OP. The result is a reflection on gospel identity that will be invaluable to Christian ministers, missioners, and students of theology interested in the social and theological processes of disciple formation.

This book explores the impact of contextualized worship arts on the development of church ministry and missions in urban churches in Beira, Mozambique. This applied research, which took place over the course of two years, focuses on expanding the song-writing workshop model in an effort to enhance culturally appropriate worship in the local church. Results of this study include increased use of local hymnody, intentional use of worship to teach theological truths, engaged pastors and empowered worship leaders, and a greater missional involvement through the use of contextualized worship arts. This book clearly demonstrates the necessity of contextualized worship arts as a key component of local church growth and the development of its members, encouraging personal discipleship, growing local ministry, and empowering for mission.

In this study Runchana Pam Suksod-Barger examines the impact of religion on female access to education in Thailand from 1889 to 1931--the early Modernization Period in Thailand. Although Thailand had traditionally been a Buddhist nation-state, Protestant missionaries during this era arrived in the country to convert Thais to Christianity. The Protestant belief in literacy so that everyone could read the Bible opened up educational opportunities for Thai girls that were not previously available to them. Suksod-Barger investigates the degree to which Buddhist and Christian (Protestant) influences affected Thai educational reforms for girls in primary and secondary education during the early Modernization Period, using a feminist theoretical framework to understand the social, political, economic, and religious impact. Examination of historical documents and empirical data are employed to compare the effect of two religions' values on female education access. The study contributes to the exploration of the historical and contextual discourse of Buddhism and women in Thailand, the history of education for Thai females during the early Modernization Period, and the overview of Protestant missions in the country, particularly their influence in establishing systems of mass education.

Negotiating Identity addresses the missiological problem of why the Hakka Chinese Christian community in Taiwan is so small despite evangelistic efforts there for more than 140 years. Christofferson explores the tensions between being Hakka and being Christian in northwestern Taiwan and discusses what both Hakka non-Christians and Christians are doing and saying in the context of these tensions. This ethnographic study uses the lens of social constructionism and consequently offers an example of how social science scholarship can help missionaries and other Christian workers to gain significant insights into the thoughts, feelings, and actions of those living in their ministry locations. Of interest is Christofferson's conclusion that the missiological perspective which puts a primary focus on ministering to a "people group" is inadequate for explaining and engaging the complexities encountered in many ministry settings. He suggests that an awareness of the way people are negotiating their identities can help Christian workers to better understand and strategically engage people in a variety of ministry contexts throughout the world.

Children are the focus of marriage in African cultures. Marriage is considered full and functional only if the couple has children--in many cultures preferably a boy. Becoming a parent also contributes to one's full adulthood in the sense that childlessness blocks ascent towards full personal dignity as an adult person in the community. As a result, childlessness is often a major disaster for both of the spouses. It has social, economical, and personal consequences, quite often including divorce. This book explores in depth how childlessness is perceived, dealt with, and coped with in two Christian communities in Machame on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Childlessness is approached through narratives of the spouses concerned and the members of their communities. Their stories reveal pain and courage, brokenness and strength, faithfulness and betrayal. Christianity presents itself in an ambiguous light, on one hand, pressuring spouses to keep up facades supporting oppressive structures. On the other hand, Christian faith provides childless couples with personal hope in the afterlife that the African traditional culture offers only to those with children. This study proves that childlessness is not only a personal but also a communal problem. Childlessness and the fear of having no children contribute to family structures and sexual behavior. In this way, they have a considerable impact on the spread of HIV/AIDS in Africa. However, this study reveals that the attitudes and practices towards marriage and children need not be petrified, but rather that traditions can, and do, change.

Over the past few decades Christianity in the global South has grown exponentially in size and influence, with many centers emerging around the globe, such as Brazil, South Korea, and Nigeria. One remarkable phenomenon in this process is the rise of faith-based, humanitarian, international, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). While traveling to about seventy different countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, Haemin Lee has witnessed the surge of faith-based NGOs all around the world. This book explores the role that religion plays in encountering secular society from various angles by drawing upon discourses in mission studies, sociology of religion, and anthropology of development. Specifically, it probes the development practices of two major Korean organizations, Korea Food for the Hungry International and Good Neighbors. This book investigates the following hypothesis: humanitarian care through international development NGOs appears to be the growing interest of Korean Christian mission and this shows a new direction of Korean Christianity as public religion. However, on closer examination, a more complex reality emerges in which diverse theological and developmental ideals motivate the Korean NGOs' humanitarian efforts.

Utilizing resources from Martin Luther and the Lutheran tradition, this study offers an understanding of the gospel as promise as key to addressing the challenge of relating the missio Dei to a generous, constructive approach toward the religious other. In its construction of a Lutheran missiology, it retrieves and reappropriates four resources from the Lutheran tradition: the gospel as promise, the law/gospel distinction, a theology of grace as promise of mercy fulfilled, and a theology of the cross utilizing the hiddenness of God. The law of God as accusing yet webbing humanity to its Creator; the gospel as the comforting promise of mercy; and the hiddenness of God as mystifying form the overarching framework within which the Lutheran missiology presented here seeks to engage the religious other by dialectically relating gospel proclamation and dialogue. Such a view of "mission shaped by promise" offers the paradox of God being both revealed and hidden in the cross as a distinctive contribution to an interreligious dialogue centered on the ambiguity and hiddenness of God.

The Christian axis has shifted dramatically southward to Africa, Asia, and Latin America, so much so that today there are more Christians living in these southern regions than among their northern counterparts. In the case of Africa, the African Initiated Churches-founded by Africans and primarily for Africans-has largely contributed to the exponential growth and proliferation of the Christian faith in the continent. Yet, even more profoundly, these churches espouse a brand of Christianity that is indigenized and thoroughly contextual. Further, the power and popularity of the AICs, beyond the unprecedented numbers joining these churches, are attributed to their relevance to the existential everyday needs and concerns of their adherents in the context of a postcolonial Africa. At the heart of Christian theology is Christology-the confessed uniqueness of Christ in history and among world religions. Yet this key feature of Christianity, as with other important elements of the Christian faith, may be variously understood and re-interpreted in these indigenous churches. The focus of this study is the amaNazaretha Church, an influential religious group founded by the African charismatic prophet Isaiah Shembe in 1911 in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The movement today claims a following of some two million adherents and has proliferated beyond the borders of South Africa to neighboring countries in Southern Africa. The book addresses the complex and at times ambivalent understanding of the person and work of Christ in the amaNazaretha Church, presenting the genesis, history, beliefs, and practices of this significant religious movement in South Africa, with broader implications for similar movements across the continent of Africa and beyond.

Christian mission has often been a project allied with colonial powers and conquests. Contemporary theologies of Christian mission, however, call for a new approach. In Eyes from the Outside, Kim Lamberty suggests using the metaphor of "accompaniment" to describe one such approach to Christian mission. She explores international protective accompaniment--eyes from the outside--as a constructive way to do Christian mission in conflict zones. Christian missionaries today frequently find themselves in isolated and poverty-stricken parts of the globe, places where violence is common. Based on a case study in Colombia, Eyes from the Outside argues that international protective accompaniment empowers communities, reduces the risk of violence, and corresponds with contemporary theologies of mission.

When Hindus and Sikhs become followers of Christ, what happens next? Should they join Christian churches that often look and feel very unfamiliar to them? Or to what degree can or should they remain a part of their Hindu/Sikh communities and practices? Uncomfortable with the answers that were provided to them by Christian leaders in northwest India, six followers of Christ began Yeshu satsangs (Jesus truth-gatherings) that sought to follow Christ and the teachings of the Bible while remaining connected to their Hindu and/or Sikh communities. Ecclesial Identities in a Multi-faith Context analyzes the contextualized practices and identities of these leaders and their gatherings, situating these in the religious history of the region and the personal histories of the leaders themselves. Whereas Christians worry that the Yeshu satsangs and related "insider movements" are syncretizing their beliefs and are not properly identifiable as "churches," Ecclesial Identities analyzes the Yeshu satsang's narratives and practices to find vibrant expressions of local church that are grappling with questions and tensions of social and religious identity. In addition to its ethnographic approach, Ecclesial Identities also utilizes recent sociological and anthropological theory in identity formation and critical realism, as well as discussions of biblical ecclesiology from the book of Acts. This study will be a helpful resource for those interested in global Christianity, the practices and identities of churches in religiously plural environments, and the creative ways in which Christ-followers can missionally engage people of other faiths.

Given increasing global migration and the importance of positive cross-cultural relations across national borders, this book offers an interdisciplinary and intercultural exploration of identity formation. It uniquely draws from theology, psychology, and sociology--engaging narrative and identity theories, migration and identity studies, and the theologies of identity and migration--and builds on them in an unprecedented study of international migrants to construct an initial theology of Christian identity in migration. New sociological research describes the social construction of religious, ethnic, and national identities among non-North American evangelical graduates who entered the United States to pursue advanced academic studies from 1983 to 2013. It provides an intercultural account of Christian identity formation in the context of migration, transnationalism, and globalization. It ultimately argues that an integral component of Christian identity-making involves the concept of migration, of movement, toward a transformation.

Is the Abrahamic blessing of Genesis 12:1-3 still active in the world today? Does God still extend his blessing to the nations through his people? The author found the answer to these questions in one of the most isolated regions of the world, Papua New Guinea. In this book Sarita D. Gallagher compares the missional nature of the Abrahamic blessing motif in Scripture to a national revival that took place in Papua New Guinea. By identifying the shared missional patterns, she illustrates the continued fulfillment of the Abrahamic blessing through the Old and New Testaments and the contemporary Papua New Guinean Church. The significance of this research is multifaceted: the text contributes new insights to the global Church's understanding of the missio Dei, records an unexplored chapter of Melanesian indigenous mission history, and impacts the foundational motivations and methodology of contemporary mission praxis.

Theologies of Power and Crisis provides a case study for Eric Wolf's research directive to better comprehend the interplay of cultural (webs of meaning) and material (webs of power) forms of social life. More specifically, the book demonstrates how theological discourse and practice engage with historical and material relations of power. It has been normative to speak of power in terms of political and economic processes and theology in terms of interpretive and symbolic experiences. This work breaks new ground by linking theological ideas with political-economic processes in terms of the structural relations of power. Ethnographically, this research investigates the theological processes of Hong Kong Chinese Christians during a period of significant social change and crisis, precipitated by the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997. It shows how local Christians and Christian institutions mediated the significant regional, national, and transnational forces of political-economic change by connecting theological practice to the structural relations of power. The Christian response was a contested process closely intertwined with the broader contested processes of social organization. This study develops an understanding of Christianity that goes beyond ecclesiastical hegemony to encompass struggles over human practice, meaning, and representation in relation to the changing political-economic context. These findings implicate religious ideas and practice as significant to an understanding of social inequalities and powerlessness by connecting ideologies to material conditions. Christian ideas may be used to legitimize an oppressive social order or they may be used to liberate those who are oppressed. Issues related to the policies and practice of development should take seriously the role of religious beliefs and practices.

This book explores the biblical interpretation of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church (EOTC). In doing so, it illuminates the interpretation of the Bible in a particular historical and cultural context and presents a compelling example of the contextual nature of biblical interpretation. Those who visit Ethiopia experience its unique spirituality, which is significantly informed by the presence of the EOTC. The EOTC has existed from earliest years of the Christian church. It has also developed and maintained its own ecclesiastic tradition in the Ethiopian context and has its own distinctive way of reading the Bible. It is noteworthy, particularly in the African context, that it has its own commentaries on the Scriptures, which continue to serve as a vital tradition in the EOTC's interpretation of the Bible. This is evident in the contemporary hermeneutics and sermons of EOTC preachers. In its comprehensive consideration of the EOTC's past and present, this book examines the interplay between tradition and context in biblical interpretation and contributes to current biblical scholarship.

There are many books that highlight the need and importance of mission toward unreached people. Unfortunately, few of them deal with the importance of understanding the real life of unreached people and how to analyze them.   This book identifies conceptual issues for the development of receptor-oriented communication strategies among young, educated, urban Hui (YEU-Hui) Muslims in China's northwestern cities in order to achieve culturally relevant churches in those areas. It is written to help not only those who are interested in the unreached, but also those who are interested in Muslim evangelism, urban sociology, biblical exegesis, contextual church planting, communication, and mission strategy.   Enoch Jinsik Kim utilizes a new approach--virtual community mission for planting offline churches--that integrates the use of local church-driven Internet community, traditional media, and offline task teams from a multi-ethnic local church. While the research focuses on the Chinese Muslim context, the identification of the young, urban, and educated as a strategic group for mission can be applied in other Muslim and non-Muslim contexts. This research is useful to cross-cultural communicators, church planters, and all those interested in interpersonal relationships.

This is a book about Christianity in one particular region in Kenya. It walks into churches, listens to sermons, dances to music, and interviews the people sitting in the pews, all with the aim of understanding how spiritual power enables these churches to function as agents within their contemporary society. Ecclesiastical communities in Africa draw upon divine power in order to engage in modernity-related topics. Humans are not unresponsive to global flows of meaning; they are integrative agents who fashion their world by living in it. The kind of modernity arising from these churches does not blindly follow Western forms, but flows from its own internal logic in which spiritual power occupies central hermeneutical function. Theological resources contribute to the formation of sociological expressions. Divine power pertains directly to human constructs, which then allows the churches to actively "image" God for the development of unique forms of modernity arising on the continent.

In this book--part biography, part critical analysis--John Hubers introduces us to a man whose pioneering ministry in the Ottoman Empire has gone largely unnoticed since his memoir was penned in 1828, three years after his death in Beirut, by a seminary colleague. His name was Pliny Fisk, and he belonged to a cadre of New England seminary students whose evangelical Calvinism led them to believe that God was opening up a new chapter in the life of the Church that included an aggressive evangelism outside the borders of Christendom. Fisk and his friend Levi Parsons joined that effort in 1819 when they became the first American missionaries sent to the Ottoman Empire by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.   Hubers's intent is to show the complexity of Fisk's character while examining the impact his move to the Middle East made on his perceptions of the religious other. As such, this volume joins a growing body of literature aimed at providing critical, historical, and religious context to the often checkered history of relations between American Christians and Western Asian peoples.

The recent rediscovery of the doctrine of the Trinity has left great impact on the thought and life of the Christian Church. With this reinstatement, the Trinity, which was left out for long as an esoteric mystery, has captured the imagination of theologians and elicited remarkable trinitarian formulations from across theological traditions. This contemporary development has forced the church to review its dogma, spirituality, and Christian practices through the lens of this central doctrine of the Christian faith. One of the important and essential upshots of the doctrine has been the reclamation of a theocentric and trinitarian understanding of mission as the missio Dei. In view of the modern renewal of the Trinity and the global expansion of Christianity, this book explores insights and perspectives from the trinitarian thoughts of St. Augustine and the Indian theologian Brahmabandhab Upadhyay that can inform missio Dei theology relevant for the Indian context.

The Trinity can be understood as a social community with members speaking and listening to one another in love, or, as Luther understood the Trinity, as conversation, then God's mission essentially involves in mission-in-dialogue. Byungohk Lee contends the church has to embrace the dialogical dimension in missional terms because the triune God is the subject of mission. The missional church conversation has taken it for granted that local churches should speak and listen to their neighbors. In contrast, for many churches in Asia, including Korea, mission has generally tended to be practiced in a monological, rather than dialogical, manner. The neighbor has not been regarded as a conversational partner of the church, but only as the object for its mission. In Listening to the Neighbor Lee shows that some local churches have participated in God's mission by listening to their neighbors. He argues that listening is not a technique, but a multifaceted learning process in missional terms. The church must nurture its hearts, eyes, and ears in order to listen to the sigh of its neighbors.

This book evaluates the common criticism that Christianity in Asia is westernized. Since the 1980s, Asian evangelical theologians and missiologists argue that the intrusion of Western theology is responsible for the Western and, hence, alien expressions of Christianity in Asia. Yet, in Singapore, the number of Christians has increased over the last few decades. Empirical evidence demonstrates that younger Chinese Singaporeans convert from Buddhism or Taoism to Christianity partly because they perceive it as a "rational" religion over Buddhism or Taoism, which are viewed as "irrational" or "superstitious." Not only do many converts favor Christianity as a rational religion, but they do not regard Christianity as a Western religion at the point of their conversion. What accounts for those recent developments?   This study explores the processes of modernization and globalization as important factors, impacting religious change in Singapore. Personal, contextual, and structural elements actually influence one's religion of choice. In facilitating effective mission, one must qualify the use of the categories, "Asian" and "Western," because religious and cultural boundaries overlap. What matters most in missiology is discerning how the gospel of Jesus Christ engages the self-understanding and lived realities of ethnic and religious others in diverse cultural settings.

America gets more diverse than ever before, and it is our responsibility to respect this diversity before us. Although many people claim that diversity matters, there are so many marginalized people who have not been heard yet. Korean-speaking young people are one of them. They have been marginalized not only by the main culture but also by their own community. This study illuminates this hidden population and their stories as emerging adults with socially, emotionally, and spiritually unstable status. With a practical theology approach, this study provides not only about who are the Korean-speaking young adults but also what is the current praxis and how the immigrant community can have different imaginations about their future with these young people. Including data gathered survey and in-depth interviews, Ignored is the first comprehensive study that addresses Korean-speaking young people. By sharing unheard stories, this book invites us to understand our diverse community. Furthermore, this book brings new imagination of listening others who have been ignored.

The Hybrid Tsinoys is a study of hybridity and homogeneity as sociocultural constructs in the development of current ethnic identity/ies of Chinese Filipinos. This study employs a descriptive ethnographic research method to discover how they see or define themselves in terms of ethnicity (Chinese, Filipino, or both) and how their perspectives affect other aspects of their lives (language, marriage, and family). The research proposes that there are different kinds of Chinese Filipinos as evidenced in the six classifications in chapter 4. Further, most of them have constructed a hybrid culture exclusively and uniquely their own. On the one hand, they are still attached to their cultural roots; on the other hand, they cannot evade the fact that they are influenced by their host country and the present global and migratory age we live in. Second-, third-, and fourth-generation Chinese Filipinos demonstrate their hybridity in language and mindset. This dissertation also lays out some challenges in relation to doing mission among them.

A significant number of Muslim communities throughout the world reflect varying degrees of involvement in Islamic mysticism. What bridges are present in this context that will facilitate not only evangelism, but also discipleship and community formation? Matthew Friedman guides the reader on a journey examining the response of the early Christian community to the challenges of ancient Jewish and Hellenic mysticism, focusing on the central idea of "union with God in Christ." Far from finding this to be a leftover from the early Church, he discovers that this theme remained crucial into the Reformation, particularly in the writing and work of eighteenth-century figures John and Charles Wesley.Join Friedman as he explores resources for discipleship and community building that will be relevant to both scholars and practitioners alike, and will be effective for witness within modern contexts of Islamic mysticism worldwide.

From its very beginning, in June 1842, the Protestant Mission in Gabon included men and women of African descent--African Americans, Americo-Liberians, and West Africans--all teachers and advanced students from the Cape Palmas (Liberia) Mission, who transferred with the mission to its new location on the Gaboon estuary. All came voluntarily and wholeheartedly. They served as teachers, evangelists, preachers, and printers, building the early foundation of Christianity in Gabon. Many eventually returned to their homelands, but others stayed for the duration of their lives, assimilating into the local community. This book celebrates the contribution of persons of African descent who served with the mission from 1834 until 1891, a time of complex and controversial race relations in America, which seeped into mission relations overseas. Private missionary correspondence and journals reveal the interrelationships, roles, and contributions of these individuals, and also the underlying perceptions of nationality, race, and gender. One must grieve the injustices evident in the stories, yet marvel at the giftedness, faith, determination and commitment of those who served, often with no official recognition. I introduce you to Mr. B. V. R. James, Lavinia Sneed, Charity Sneed Menkel, Mary Harding, and others--may their stories inspire you!

How does the world's oral majority--adults with limited formal education (ALFE)--really prefer to learn? Few pause long enough to ask those who eschew print. The result of scholarly research and prolonged immersion in the Cambodian culture, Connected Learning exposes the truth about orality--the shame associated with limited formal education; the unfortunate misnomer that is orality; the place of spirituality, grace, and hope; and the obvious but overlooked learning preferences. ALFE have different ways of learning and knowing, a different epistemology and culture from print learners, even though we all begin alike. The choice is not between Ong's orality or literacy, but between learning from people or from print. Dr. Thigpen, a veteran cross-cultural worker, shares remedies for the hegemony and inequities unwittingly fostered by the literate minority. In a dominant culture where learning from people is prime, how can educators with a preference for print adapt? Providing an important tool in the Learning Quadrants diagram, Connected Learning advises teaching to the quadrant and calls for seven necessary shifts in teaching. Anyone versed in orality will admit these findings have "global implications and applications" (Steffen). The reader who heeds will positively impact a huge portion of humanity.

How do missiologists describe the cosmologies of those that Christianity encounters around the world? Our descriptions often end up filtered through our own Western religious categories. Furthermore, indigenous Christians adopt these Western religious categories. This presents the problem of local Christianities, described by Kwame Bediako as those that "have not known how to relate to their traditional culture in terms other than those of denunciation or of separateness." Kevin Lines's phenomenological study of local religious specialists in Turkana, Kenya, not only challenges our Western categories by revealing a more authentic complexity of the issues for local Christians and Western missionaries, but also provides a model for continued use of phenomenology as a valued research method in larger missiological studies. Additionally, this study points to the ways that local Christians and traditional religious practitioners interpret Western missionaries through local religious categories. Clearly, missionaries, missiologists, anthropologists, and religious studies scholars need to do a much more careful job of studying and describing the contextually specific phenomena of traditional religious specialists before relying on meta-categories that come out of our Western theology or older overly simplified ethnographies. The research from this current study of Turkana religious specialists begins that process in the Turkana context and offers a model for future studies in contexts where traditional religion and Christianity intersect.