Let's Learn Chemistry

By Nicholas J. Orme, Masood Anwar MSC and Atif Elnaggar PhD

Chemistry, the fascinating realm of chemical interactions, delves into the intricacies of atoms’ structure, chemical bonding, molecular arrangements, and the diverse manners in which these molecules interact. In short, this captivating science stands as a testament to humanity’s ceaseless pursuit to understand the fabric of our existence.

Nicholas J. Orme relies on his extensive experience as a physician and associate professor of medicine to provide a comprehensive look into this engaging field while unlocking the secrets of how matter takes shape. To help students fully comprehend this complex subject, he explores aspects of physics, biology, and mathematics while covering related topics such as the conservation of matter, energy, charge, and spin; the chemical bonding process; the specific structure of matter; the many solubility laws; nuclear chemistry; and much more. Included are images, diagrams, and fine measurements in chemistry that help demonstrate how molecules and atoms interact with one another in intriguing ways.

Let’s Learn Chemistry is a teaching guide that leads students on a captivating journey to learn more about a fascinating science with diverse branches.

• Language: English
• Publisher: AuthorHouse
• Release date: Mar 6, 2025
• ISBN: 9798823040709

Nicholas J. Orme

Nicholas J. Orme is a physician who has been specializing in family medicine and geriatrics for over fifteen years. He earned a BS from San Jose State University and an MD from Creighton School of Medicine. Dr. Orme currently currently runs the Nicholas J. Orme, MD Inc. Family Medicine clinic. He is also a clinical preceptor for the school of nurse practitioners program at UC Davis. He resides in Fresno, California.

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© 2025 Nicholas J. Orme. All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means without the written permission of the author.

Published by AuthorHouse   06/09/2025

ISBN: 979-8-8230-4069-3 (sc)

ISBN: 979-8-8230-4718-0 (hc)

ISBN: 979-8-8230-4070-9 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2025900097

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and such images are being used for illustrative purposes only.

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Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

Contents

Introduction

What Is Chemistry?

The Atom

Atomic Number, Atomic Weight, Strong and Weak Nuclear Forces, and Orbitals

Excitation and Florescence

High-temperature flame chromatography

Conservation of Mass, Energy, Charge, and Spin

Metals, Nonmetals, Valence Bands, and Conduction Bands

Chemical Bonding

Chemical Nomenclature

Structure of Matter (Matter Comes in Different Forms)

Density of Water

Acid-Base Theory

Milliequivalents (side note)

Points of Inflection

Density of Water

Measuring the Volume of Liquids in Test Tubes

‘J’ tubes

Renchin Tubes and Renchins

Cloud Chamber

Mixtures That Form Gases and Solids

Chemical Salts

Crystal lattice energy

Energy of hydration

pKa and pKb Values

Different States of Matter

Osmosis, Diffusion, and Equilibrium

Cube

Moles

Stoichiometry

Kinetic heat and expansion coefficients

Boiling point suppression

Numeric Integration

Elecrochemistry

ILLUSTRATION

Hydrogen Cells

Thermocouple

Semiconductors

Superconductors

Physics as It Relates to Chemistry

Nuclear Chemistry

Ergs

Radioactivity

Isotopes, Isotones and Isobars

Fission and fusion

Ketones

Aromatic Compounds

Esters

Infrared spectroscopy

Magnets

High voltage gel electrophoresis

Computer Research

Biochemistry

Comets

Mars

Chemistry of Taste

DNA

Lipid Synthesis

Lipoprotein Synthetase

Amide Bond

Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis

Radicals

Inorganic chemistry

Physical Chemistry

Graph

Curve

Cryochemistry and Superconductors

Batteries

Chemistry of the Environment

Industrial Chemistry

Dissolving Gold with Mercury

Potassium cyanide (KCN)

Amide synthesis

Explosives

Fuels

Poisonous Gasses

Hard Metals

Log Books

Medical Chemistry

Digestion

Respiration

Red blood cells

RNA Synthesis

Valence electrons and Bonds

Triglyceride

Lipid-lipid bi layer

Cell Membrane

Additives

Other Additives to Medication

Medical Labs

Urinalysis

Addendum

Archeology

Kinetics

Numeric Integration

Algorithms

Tangents

Statistics and Gaussian (Bell) curves

Decay of Radioactive Elements

Conclusion

Additional topics and supportive information

About the Author

Introduction

Chemistry, the fascinating realm of chemical interactions, delves into the intricacies of atoms’ structure, chemical bonding, molecular arrangements, and the diverse manners in which these molecules interact.

By exploring this captivating field, we unlock the secrets of how matter takes shape. To fully comprehend the subject, we’ll explore aspects of physics, biology, and mathematics, making it one of the most thrilling and engaging topics you will ever encounter.

Nicholas J. Orme, MD

Atif Elnaggar, PhD

Masood Anwar, master’s degree in chemistry

What Is Chemistry?

Chemistry, an enthralling and multifaceted discipline, is the scientific study of matter, its properties, composition, structure, and the changes it undergoes during various interactions and reactions. Chemistry unravels the intricate dance of atoms and molecules at its core, delving into the fundamental building blocks that constitute the universe. Through its diverse branches, such as organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, and analytical chemistry, this captivating field illuminates our world’s complexities on macroscopic and microscopic levels.

By exploring chemical bonds, thermodynamics, kinetics, and quantum mechanics, chemists decipher the underlying principles governing a vast array of phenomena, from the formation of stars in the cosmos to the synthesis of lifesaving pharmaceuticals. Moreover, chemistry’s applicability extends beyond the confines of laboratories and academia, permeating into our daily lives in countless ways. From the food we consume to the materials we use and the energy we harness, chemistry plays an integral role in shaping the modern world.

The rich tapestry of chemistry’s history stretches back through millennia, with notable contributions from pioneering minds like Antoine Lavoisier, Dmitri Mendeleev, and Marie Curie. Their groundbreaking discoveries and tireless pursuits paved the way for our understanding of matter and its interactions. Yet the quest to unravel the mysteries of chemistry is far from over, as contemporary scientists continue to push the boundaries of knowledge, unraveling intricate mechanisms and unveiling novel compounds with exciting potential.

In conclusion, the realm of chemistry embodies the essence of scientific inquiry as it explores the profound intricacies and boundless diversity of the material world. Embracing a profound legacy and an unwavering spirit of exploration, this captivating science stands as a testament to humanity’s ceaseless pursuit of understanding the very fabric of our existence.

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The Atom

The atom, an enigmatic and foundational concept in physics and chemistry, constitutes the fundamental unit of matter. It represents the smallest indivisible particle of an element that retains its distinctive properties. The journey to unravel the mysteries of the atom spans centuries, with remarkable insights provided by eminent scientists such as John Dalton, J. J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and Niels Bohr, who have left an indelible mark on our comprehension of this infinitesimal entity.

At its core, the atom comprises a dense nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons, surrounded by a cloud of electrons whirling in orbits. The nucleus, possessing a positive charge, is counterbalanced by the negatively charged electrons, creating a state of electro-neutrality for the atom. While electrons are thought to occupy specific energy levels or shells, they can transition between these levels, absorbing or emitting energy in the form of photons, a phenomenon fundamental to the science of spectroscopy.

The diverse elements present on earth are characterized by the unique arrangement and number of protons in their nuclei, referred to as the atomic number. Moreover, the nucleus’s sum of protons and neutrons defines the atomic mass, providing insights into an element’s stability and isotopic variations. This intricate interplay of subatomic particles within the atom defines elements’ chemical and physical properties, guiding their behavior during chemical reactions and interactions.

With the advent of quantum mechanics in the early twentieth century, a deeper understanding of the atom’s behavior emerged, challenging classical Newtonian physics and opening new vistas of exploration. The quantum model of the atom, pioneered by Schrödinger and Heisenberg, portrays electrons not as discrete particles but as probability distributions, shrouding the atom in an aura of inherent uncertainty and wavelike behavior.

In conclusion, the atom serves as a remarkable testament to the ceaseless pursuit of scientific knowledge, encapsulating the beauty of complexity and the wonders of variation within its minuscule realm. From ancient philosophical ponderings to cutting-edge quantum theory, the atom’s journey continues to inspire generations of scientists and curious minds, underscoring the inexhaustible potential for discovery that lies within the heart of this elemental building block.

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Atomic Number, Atomic

Weight, Strong and

Weak Nuclear Forces,

and Orbitals

The foundation of our modern understanding of atoms can be attributed to the brilliant physicist Niels Bohr, whose groundbreaking work in 1911 introduced a revolutionary concept. Bohr postulated that atoms comprise a central nucleus, housing neutrons and protons, which are bound together by the formidable forces of the nuclear realm. Within the fabric of nature, four fundamental forces govern interactions: gravity, magnetic fields, electric fields, and the robust yet delicate forces of the atomic nucleus.

The gravitational, magnetic, and electric forces display a diminishing influence as distance increases from their epicenter. In a proportional relationship, when the distance doubles, the force weakens to a mere one-fourth of its initial magnitude. Similarly, with a tripled distance, the intensity wanes to a mere one-ninth of its original strength. However, the extraordinary aspect lies in the realm of the strong and weak nuclear forces, which, unlike their counterparts, maintain steadfast potency until a specific nucleus diameter is reached. Astonishingly, beyond this critical boundary, they abruptly vanish, leading to dramatic consequences.

Reference to accompanying diagrams is highly recommended to visualize these intricate phenomena better. As the confines of the nucleus are surpassed, the once formidable forces falter, leading to the disintegration of the nucleus itself. This fundamental insight sheds light on the delicate balance that governs the very essence of matter, unveiling the dynamic interplay of forces that define the stability and existence of atoms.

In essence, Bohr’s theoretical framework laid the cornerstone for comprehending the intricate workings of the atomic realm, accentuating the role of powerful nuclear forces and the delicate tipping point that governs the stability of nuclei. The profound significance of these findings continues to shape our understanding of the microscopic world, inspiring further exploration and discovery into the marvels of the atom.

Atomic Number, Atomic Weight, Strong and Weak Nuclear Forces, and OrbitalsNiels Bohr

Niels Bohr

Atomic Number, Atomic Weight, Strong and Weak Nuclear Forces, and Orbitals

The number of protons is the atomic number. The number of protons plus neutrons is the atomic weight. Atomic weight is expressed in Dalton or as amu (atomic mass units). Very small particles called electrons orbit the nucleus in what is sometimes referred to as the planetary model (as if the nucleus were like the sun and the electrons were planets).

Neutrons and protons are 1,833 times more massive than electrons.

Atomic Number, Atomic Weight, Strong and Weak Nuclear Forces, and Orbitals

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The orbits of the electrons are referred to as orbitals or as electron shells. The outermost shell is the valence shell—the shell that forms bonds with other atoms.

Neutrons have no charge, and protons have a positive charge. Electrons have a negative charge. And protons attract electrons in much the same way that the sun’s gravity attracts planets. The electrons orbit the nucleus in specific regions of space known as orbitals.

The number of electrons that occupy an orbital is calculated with the following: electrons = 2n², where n is the number of the electron shell.

The first orbital holds two electrons: electrons = 2(1)² = 2.

The second holds eight: electrons = 2(2) ² = 8.

The third holds eighteen: electrons = 2(3) ² = 18.

And so on.

Why does the atomic shell have 2n² electrons? Why two? Why n²? Remember that the orbitals are like a centrifuge. They need at least two particles separated by 180 degrees to be balanced. The electron shell is like a ball that surrounds the nucleus. N is similar to radius (r) and the surface area of the ball is approximately n².

Louis De Broglie

Louis De Broglie

In 1929, Louis De Broglie won the Nobel Prize in physics for developing the concept of De Broglie waves. He demonstrated that electrons move through space as waves. The formula for De Broglie waves is as follows: wavelength equals Plank’s constant divided by the electron’s mass and the electron’s velocity; mass times velocity is momentum (p). So we could say that De Broglie wavelength equals Plank’s constant / p.

λ = h/p = h/m (e) x v(e)

Diagram illustrating electron wave resonance for Bohr orbitals. Shows wave patterns for n=1, 2, 3, with circular paths and nodes around a nucleus.

They also orbit nuclei as waves, and the number of waves must be equal to a whole number (n). Therefore, the circumference of orbitals (C = 2πr) divided by the wavelength (λ) has to be a whole number. It is for this reason that orbitals can only exist in specific regions of space. When electrons shift from one orbital to another, they do so in an infinitely small period of time. If the circumference of the orbital is equal to the De Broglie wavelength times a whole number, it will not decay. If the orbital does not contain a whole number, it will.

Diagram of an atom with electrons in orbit, arrows indicating electron movement. Bottom shows chemical structures of ozone and hydrogen peroxide.Diagram of a Bohr model atom with a central nucleus and five concentric electron orbits labeled 'e-,' representing electrons, and showing atomic structure.

If the innermost shell does not contain a whole number of De Broglie waves, it would decay as electron capture. The electron would spiral into the nucleus and interact with a proton to form a neutron and a gamma ray (p++ =+e-----→ gamma ray + n+). This is what happens with iodine 123, 125, and 131. If the valence shell does not contain a whole number of De Broglie waves, it will give electrons away. We see this with elements in column IA:

• hydrogen

• potassium

• sodium

• lithium

• rubidium

• francium

• cesium

To understand this, we need to discuss four concepts in physics:

• traveling waves

• standing waves

• constructive interference

• destructive interference

A simple black line drawing depicts a traveling wave with two crests and two troughs. An arrow at the end indicates the wave's direction to the right.Diagram illustrating wave behavior: a standing wave between mirrors, constructive interference, and resulting final wave. Arrows indicate wave direction.

If a wave propagates through space, it is a traveling wave. If it reflects off a surface such that two waves travel in opposite directions, it is a standing wave. This can be seen with gas lasers in which light waves reflect off high-efficiency mirrors.

Two out-of-phase sine waves intersect, illustrating destructive interference. Black arrows indicate direction. Labeled 'Out of phase' and 'Destructive interference.'A dimly lit laboratory scene features a glowing apparatus on a table. The device emits soft light, highlighting scientific equipment and creating a focused, analytical atmosphere.

With standing waves, there are two kinds of interference.

Constructive interference is where the waves add to each other and create a new wave with greater magnitude. This happens in lasers: light amplification through stimulated electron radiation.

Wave interference diagram showing two sine waves combining to form a larger wave. Arrows indicate direction; plus and equal signs indicate addition.

Destructive interference is when two waves neutralize one another.

Two sine waves with arrows on the right are added to result in a straight line with an arrow, illustrating destructive interference.

Constructive and destructive interference takes place between the orbitals of atoms. If the De Broglie waves interact through constructive interference, the orbital will last for a period approaching infinity. If there is destructive interference, it will decay.

If the valence shell decays, the element would give electrons away, as with the elements in column 1A. If the innermost orbit decays, the electrons would spiral into the nucleus as is true of iodine 123, iodine 125, and iodine 131: electron capture.

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Excitation and Florescence

When an electron acquires additional energy, signifying its capacity to perform valuable work, it undergoes a transition to a higher orbital state—a phenomenon known as excitation. Conversely, if the electron releases energy, it descends to a lower orbital, a process referred to as fluorescence.

The excitation process involves the transfer of energy to a molecule from another molecule or from an external source of electromagnetic radiation, such as x-rays, ultraviolet light, visible light, or heat. In contrast, atoms typically emit light during fluorescence.

A row of glowing Erlenmeyer flasks, filled with liquid, reflects light on a glossy surface. The image conveys a scientific and mysterious atmosphere.Diagram of a gas chromatography setup with a carrier gas tank, pressure regulator, flow controller, sample injection port, column in an oven, detector, processor signal, and outlet.chemistry logo

High-temperature

flame chromatography

High-temperature flame chromatography uses excitation and fluorescence to make qualitative and quantitative analysis. What kinds of atoms are chemicals made of, and how many? If we place a sample into a hydrogen flame (which burns at 6,000°F), its atoms would radiate light. Different atoms generate different colors. Iron produces red light. Copper would be green, and sodium, yellow. As the concentration of iron increases, the intensity of red light (measured in lumen s) would also increase. We could break a sample down with a prism if it radiated light. The colors would tell us which elements we were dealing with. The intensity would tell us the concentration.

We could set up three standards with known concentrations and plot a curve to determine concentration of the unknown. Let us say that we have a solution that is 0.1 percent iron nitrate by weight and another that is 1 percent and 10 percent. We would plot an x-y graph. We let y (the ordinate) equal lumens of red light (the dependent variable). X (the abscissa) equals concentration of iron (the independent variable). Then we could measure and plot lumens of red light as a function of iron concentration and plug in the unknown (see diagram).

Let us plot a table of theoretical data and solve a hypothetical problem.

Graph titled 'Iron Conc %' showing lumens vs. iron concentration. A gray curve and black linear line intersect near (5,1). Dashed lines highlight this point.

Let us say that our unknown puts out 7.5 lumens of red light. We would know that it contains iron and that the concentration was halfway between 1 percent and 10 percent, 5.5 percent. This will allow us to analyze many unknown substances.

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Conservation of Mass,

Energy, Charge, and Spin

The atomic number is always equal to the number of electrons. For every proton, there has to be an electron. This is because positive and negative charges have to balance. This brings us to another concept. In nature, we have conservation of …

• mass

• energy

• charge

• spin

Mass, energy, charge, and spin can change form, but they cannot be created or destroyed.

Let us define each.

Mass

takes up space, has volume, is attracted to gravitational bodies, and has inertia (resistance to change).

Energy

is the potential to perform useful work. It comes as electromagnetic energy (as waves of electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other).

Diagram illustrating electromagnetic waves. Magnetic field (B) and electric field (E) are perpendicular. Arrow shows propagation direction; wavelength indicated.

It includes radio waves, microwaves, heat, light, ultraviolet light, x-rays, and gamma rays.

Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy = ½ mass x velocity squared.

(energy of a body in motion)

Electrical energy

(as an electric current)

Current (in amps) x volts = watts (power) I x V = P

Potential energy

(energy that can be released from a system)

Chemical energy

(released by the reactivity of chemicals)

Nuclear energy

(released by the nuclei of radioactive elements)

Comes in the form of neutrons, alpha particles, positrons, electrons, and gamma rays.

Charge refers to the negative and positive electric charges that exist within atoms.

Spin refers to the direction that atomic particles spin (clockwise or counterclockwise)

within an atom.

Periodic Table

The number of protons plus the number of neutrons is referred to as the atomic weight. It is measured in dalton or as amu (atomic mass units). We think of atoms in terms of their atomic symbols, which appear on the periodic table. The periodic table was devised by a Russian chemist named Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. It classifies elements (chemicals that cannot be broken down further) in terms of reactivity. Metals appear on the left, and nonmetals appear on the right. The lightest element, hydrogen (H), appears in the upper-left-hand corner. And the heaviest, uranium (Ur), is in the lower right.

The atomic number (number of protons) is placed to the upper right next to the symbol. The atomic weight (protons plus neutrons) is in the lower right. So let us look at helium. Helium is a gas that is lighter than air. It is typically used to fill balloons. It is referred to as a noble element. It contains two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons. It is written as follows:

Periodic table element square for helium, showing 'He' in large text. Atomic number 2, name 'Helium,' and atomic mass 4.002 are included.

All 106 naturally occurring elements are classified in the same way—first, the letter, followed by the atomic numbers and weights. Small amounts of these elements exist in seawater.

Dmitri Mendeleev

Dmitri Mendeleev

Periodic Table of Elements with blocks for each element, showcasing symbols and names. Presented in a gray color scheme; orderly and informative layout.chemistry logo

Metals, Nonmetals,

Valence Bands, and

Conduction Bands

Metals are on the left side of the periodic table. With nonmetals, the outermost orbital is the valence band. It is the orbital that allows the atom to form chemical bonds. Metals have one orbital beyond that, the conduction band. It has two roles; it acts as a valence band and allows the element to conduct an electric current.

Hand-drawn diagrams of an atom. Top: 'metal' labeled, shows electrons in conduction band. Bottom: 'non-metal' labeled, shows electrons in valence band.

The conduction band gives metals all of their metal like properties:

• high luster

• hardness

• malleability

• low specific heat

• high density

• impervious to acid

• high melting point

• conduction of heat and electricity

• elasticity (like a spring)

If a transitional element has a conduction band, it will behave as a mental. If not, a nonmetal. Transitional elements constitute the border between metals and nonmetals. They include carbon, silicon, gallium, germanium, and arsenic. They could behave as either metals or as nonmetals.

Inorganic chemistry

Our next topic involves molecules that do not contain carbon. Examples include inorganic salts such as:

Oxidation, Reduction, and Oxidation States

When electrons shift