The Political Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas

By Oscar Lawson

This book provides a comprehensive examination of the political thought of St. Thomas Aquinas, exploring his contributions to political theory, justice, law, and governance in relation to natural law, the common good, and the role of both secular and religious authorities. Rooted in Aristotelian philosophy and Christian theology, Aquinas' political philosophy seeks to reconcile reason with divine law, asserting that law is an ordinance of reason aimed at the common good, and that legitimate political authority is derived from moral principles. Throughout the book, Aquinas' reflections on monarchy, democracy, justice, the state, and the rights and duties of citizens are explored in depth, highlighting how his work shaped both Catholic social teaching and broader political thought. The influence of Aquinas' ideas is traced across history, from medieval debates on Church-State relations to the rise of modern secularism and contemporary political theory. Drawing on primary sources from Aquinas' own works, as well as the writings of later thinkers who engaged with his ideas, the book offers a critical analysis of his enduring impact on moral and political philosophy. By examining Aquinas' theories on law, justice, property, and resistance to tyranny, the book demonstrates how his thought provides a timeless framework for understanding the ethical dimensions of governance and the pursuit of justice in both the individual and societal contexts. The legacy of Aquinas' work continues to resonate today in ongoing discussions on human rights, the role of the state, and the moral limits of political power.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Historia Magna
• Release date: Feb 11, 2025
• ISBN: 9798230872559

Book preview

Introduction: Aquinas and the Foundations of Political Thought

The political thought of St. Thomas Aquinas emerges at the confluence of medieval Christian theology, Aristotelian philosophy, and the complex political realities of the thirteenth century. Born in 1225 in Roccasecca, a town in the Kingdom of Sicily, Thomas was destined for a life steeped in scholarship and religious devotion. Educated at the Benedictine abbey of Monte Cassino and later at the University of Naples, his early exposure to Aristotle’s works, which were being reintroduced to Western Europe through translations from Arabic and Greek sources, profoundly shaped his intellectual trajectory. This encounter with Aristotelianism, especially as interpreted by Islamic and Jewish philosophers such as Avicenna and Maimonides, was crucial in the formation of his systematic approach to philosophy and political theory.

The thirteenth century was a time of dynamic intellectual and political transformations. The Holy Roman Empire, under Frederick II, was engaged in conflicts with the Papacy, reflecting broader tensions between secular and ecclesiastical authorities. The rise of centralized monarchies in France and England, coupled with the decline of feudalism, created a shifting political landscape that demanded new conceptual frameworks. It was in this context that Aquinas developed his vision of political order, drawing upon the classical heritage of Aristotle, the theological traditions of Augustine, and the legal traditions of Roman and canon law. The integration of these diverse influences allowed Aquinas to articulate a vision of politics that was both deeply rooted in Christian moral thought and attuned to the practical necessities of governance.

Aquinas’ engagement with Aristotle is particularly significant. The rediscovery of The Politics and Nicomachean Ethics in the Latin West provided medieval scholars with a systematic account of political life that emphasized the naturalness of human society and the role of reason in governance. Unlike Plato, who envisioned an ideal state governed by philosopher-kings, Aristotle presented a more pragmatic view, recognizing the variability of political regimes and emphasizing the common good as the ultimate purpose of political association. Aquinas absorbed and refined these ideas, grounding them in a Christian metaphysical framework that saw political order as part of the divine plan. For Aquinas, human beings are naturally political creatures, but their political life must be oriented toward the higher purpose of achieving the common good, which ultimately finds its fulfillment in divine law.

The concept of natural law is central to Aquinas’ political philosophy. He argues that all law derives from eternal law, which is the divine reason governing the universe. From this eternal law flows natural law, which is accessible to human reason and provides the foundation for just human laws. Unlike Augustine, who viewed earthly political institutions with suspicion and often saw them as a consequence of sin, Aquinas held a more optimistic view of political authority. While he recognized the imperfections of human governance, he maintained that political institutions are not merely necessary evils but instruments for achieving justice and the common good. This nuanced approach allowed Aquinas to offer a political theory that justified obedience to legitimate rulers while also providing criteria for resisting tyranny.

The role of the Church in political life is another crucial aspect of Aquinas’ thought. The medieval world was characterized by a complex relationship between spiritual and temporal powers, with the Papacy asserting authority over kings and emperors. Aquinas sought to clarify this relationship by distinguishing between divine and human law, arguing that while rulers derive their authority from God, their power is legitimate only insofar as it aligns with the principles of justice and natural law. In his work De Regno, written for the King of Cyprus, Aquinas outlines his ideal of kingship: a ruler must govern not for personal gain but for the welfare of his people, and his authority must be exercised in accordance with divine law. This vision of kingship, though idealistic, had practical implications for debates on the legitimacy of political power and resistance to unjust rulers.

Aquinas’ influence extended far beyond his lifetime. His political philosophy shaped the development of later medieval and early modern political thought, influencing figures such as Dante Alighieri, John of Paris, and Francisco Suárez. His synthesis of Aristotelianism and Christian theology provided the foundation for Catholic social teaching and continues to inform contemporary discussions on law, justice, and governance. The enduring relevance of his ideas can be seen in debates on natural law theory, the moral foundations of political authority, and the relationship between religion and politics.

By situating Aquinas within the broader historical and intellectual currents of his time, we can appreciate the depth and complexity of his political thought. His engagement with Aristotle, his response to the challenges of medieval politics, and his theological commitments all contributed to a vision of political life that remains influential to this day. As we explore his political philosophy in greater depth, we will see how his ideas provide not only a framework for understanding medieval political structures but also insights that continue to resonate in contemporary political theory.

Chapter 1: The Foundations of Aquinas' Political Philosophy

The political philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas is deeply embedded in the broader framework of his metaphysical, ethical, and theological thought. To understand its foundations, one must first explore the historical and intellectual context in which his ideas developed, particularly the synthesis of classical philosophy and Christian doctrine that defined his approach. The thirteenth century was a time of both scholastic flourishing and political turbulence, marked by the growing power of centralized monarchies, conflicts between the Papacy and secular rulers, and the revival of Aristotelian philosophy in Western Europe. Aquinas, born into the influential noble family of the Counts of Aquino in 1225, was raised in a world where the balance between ecclesiastical and royal authority was constantly contested, shaping his reflections on the nature of law, governance, and justice.

Aquinas' philosophical foundation was deeply influenced by Aristotle, whose works were being rediscovered in Latin Christendom through translations from Arabic and Greek sources. The Aristotelian revival, facilitated by scholars such as William of Moerbeke, Albertus Magnus, and Averroes, provided medieval thinkers with a systematic framework for understanding politics as a natural dimension of human existence. Aristotle’s claim in Politics that man is by nature a political animal resonated with Aquinas, who saw political life not as a mere consequence of human sinfulness—as Augustine had often suggested—but as part of the divine order of creation. Unlike Augustine, who viewed the earthly city as a place of exile from the divine city, Aquinas argued that human society, while imperfect, was structured according to the rational order of God’s law. This divergence from Augustinian political pessimism allowed Aquinas to construct a theory of political authority that was not merely about restraining human sin but about guiding society toward the common good.

Central to Aquinas’ political philosophy is his doctrine of law, which he systematically articulates in his Summa Theologiae. He identifies four kinds of law: eternal law, natural law, divine law, and human law. Eternal law, he explains, is the rational governance of the universe by God. It is immutable and serves as the ultimate source of all other laws. Natural law, derived from eternal law, is the participation of rational creatures in the divine order; it is inscribed in human nature and accessible through reason. This concept is critical for Aquinas’ understanding of political order, as it establishes a moral foundation for human law. Unlike the voluntarist tradition that would later emphasize the arbitrary will of rulers or even of God, Aquinas insists that law must be rooted in reason and must serve the common good.

His discussion of natural law builds on the classical tradition of Cicero, who in De Legibus argued that true law is right reason in agreement with nature. Aquinas takes this idea further, asserting that natural law is not only rational but also oriented toward divine justice. This principle had profound political implications, for it meant that rulers and legislators were not autonomous creators of law but custodians of an objective moral order. When human law contradicts natural law, it is unjust and ceases to have binding authority. As he writes, An unjust law is no law at all (lex iniusta non est lex). This assertion, drawn from both Augustine and Cicero, provided a philosophical foundation for resistance to tyranny and the moral obligation to disobey laws that contravene natural justice.

Aquinas’ emphasis on the common good as the purpose of political society reflects his Aristotelian heritage but is transformed by his Christian convictions. In Politics, Aristotle argues that the city-state exists not merely for economic security but for the highest fulfillment of human nature, which is the virtuous life. Aquinas adopts this teleological view but reinterprets it within a Christian framework: the ultimate good of human life is not merely civic virtue but union with God. Political life, therefore,