Advanced Lactate Diagnostics

By Maduraiveeran Govindhan

"Advanced Lactate Diagnostics" highlights the important role of nanomaterial-derived sensing electrodes for clinical and biomedical diagnostics.

The book begins with the fundamentals of electrochemical lactate sensors and details the electrochemical cell design and fabrication of electrode materials using nanomaterials.

The sensing of emergent biomarkers including lactate is of key significance in numerous fields, encompassing the healthcare industry, the clinical medicine and diagnostics sectors, food safety, etc.

In precise, the design and development of potent lactate and sensing platforms are especially in great demand in a variety of industries, including those involved in clinical analysis, biomedicine, biological, food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, leather, sports, and chemical industries.

Nanomaterials are open doors in electrochemical sensors and biosensors due to their advantages of high surface-to-volume ratio, high surface reaction activity, high catalytic efficiency, and strong adsorption ability.

Thus, the main goal of the present book is to develop electrochemical sensor platforms based on transition metal-based nanostructures with high electrocatalytic activity and sensing performance towards lactate.

The book concludes by exploring future directions for research and innovation, emphasizing the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in advancing this field.

Overall, it serves as a comprehensive resource for researchers and industrialists interested in the intersection of nanotechnology and healthcare systems.

Thank you,

Dr. Govindhan Maduraiveeran

• Language: English
• Publisher: Maduraiveeran Govindhan
• Release date: Feb 4, 2025
• ISBN: 9798230770800

Maduraiveeran Govindhan

Dr. Govindhan Maduraiveeran is a Research Associate Professor of Chemistry at SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu. He received his M.Sc. and PhD degrees in Chemistry from Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu. He has earned his post-doctoral research experiences at The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA (2011-2013), and Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Canada (2013-2017). His research interests span the areas of "electrochemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemical sensors/biosensors, and electrochemical energy conversion and storage systems." He has authored over 87 international peer-reviewed journal articles, six-book chapters, two- book, and holds three- patents. He is also a recipient of the "Emerging Scientist Award" of Lakehead University, Canada in 2014 and "The Best Researcher Award" of SRM IST in 2021 & 2022.

Book preview

1.  Introduction

One of the most important technologies for identifying and measuring chemical and biological substances is biosensors [1-3].

Numerous biosensors that monitor light, pH, electric current, pressure, and other variables are available.

The biosensor era began in 1962 when Leland C. Clark, known as the Father of Biosensors, created enzyme-based electrodes.

Since then, scientists from a variety of fields have developed more sophisticated, dependable, and repeatable biosensing equipment.

Biosensors are generally easy to use and can be used to analyze the analytes present in bodily fluids.

A broad category of cutting-edge technology, biosensors are most well-suited for use in human healthcare applications [4].

When chemical components or bioactive species are added to solutions, reactions occur. This is the case with many standard analytical procedures.

In recent years, there have been several incidents that have shaken patient confidence and sentiment in the biomedical sector.

Biosensors are crucial research tools due to their ability to quantify biomolecules and investigate biomolecular interactions in medical diagnostics [5].

The high-performance detection of emergent biomarkers is of key significance in numerous fields, encompassing the healthcare industry, the clinical medicine and diagnostics sectors, food safety, etc. (Figure 1) [6-8].

Numerous biosensor platforms were established for the identification and measurement of biomarkers, such as lactate (LA), glucose (GLU), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), nitric oxide (NO), etc. utilizing either in vitro or in vivo studies [4, 9, 10].

Potent lactate sensing platforms are especially in great demand in a variety of industries, including those involved in clinical analysis, biomedicine, biological, food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, leather, sports, and chemical industries [11-13].

The elevated biomarker concentrations may not only indicate the presence of clinically important disorders but also indicate their severity.

Therefore, it's essential to develop lactate sensors that are easy to use, quick -in response time, inexpensive, high selectivity, and sensitivity [14-16].

F:\Pictures\Synopsis\Into.Circle Fig.1.tif

Figure 1. Applications of biosensors and electrochemical sensors based on nanostructures produced from transition metals are shown schematically.

Typically, sensors consist of a transducer connected to an analyte-selective interface.

A transducer is a tool that converts a chemical or physical change into a signal that can be measured.

The Latin word traduco, from which the word transducer is derived, refers to a device that can change the form of energy.

Depending on their uses and principles of operation, transducers can be categorized as mechanical, optical, thermal, electrochemical, etc.

To provide a quick and precise analysis in the system, the analyte and transducer must be closer together, and the sensing electrolyte's volume should be small.

Because of this short distance, the analyte could diffuse to the transducer quickly, allowing for a speedy analysis.

Its surface and analyte must interact directly or use mediators like polymers, surfactants, or unique ligands for the mechanism to work.

A gas, membrane, protein, bioactive material, etc. can all be used to create the analyte-selective interface.

It has been discovered that these interfaces are effective in detecting, detecting, and controlling the sensitivity and specificity of the related analyte that is being studied.

Electrochemical Sensor

The reactions involve electrochemical processes under applied potential which can be monitored on an electrode surface and these are generally called electrochemical sensors.

Electrochemical sensors are the most established and accessible technique in the solid-state chemical sensor field.

Electrochemical sensors relate the chemical changes with the flow of electrons and convert the chemical reactions into a measurable electrochemical signal (Figure 2.) [17].

As a result, chemicals/molecules/ions/compounds were detected often by their reduction or oxidation on a metallic electrode modified with electro-catalysts (either by enzymatic or non-enzymatic routes).

Therefore, to detect the analytes by this method, an electrochemical workstation with an electrochemical cell and three electrodes such as a working electrode (nanostructured materials based modified electrodes), counter electrode (platinum wire), and reference electrode (silver/silver chloride, Ag/AgCl) is required.

The working electrode potential variation was measured by the stable reference electrode, while current flows between the counter electrode and the working electrode.

Cyclic voltammetry (CV), square wave voltammetry (SWV), amperometry (i-t), and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) techniques are generally used to detect the analytes in the electrolyte solution that is either adsorbed or diffused onto the working electrode surface.

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Figure 2. An illustration of the elements that make up an electrochemical sensor.

A variety of analytical techniques such as optical assays, chromatographic, non-invasive methods, etc. have been established for the detection and quantification of lactate.

In comparison to these methods, electroanalytical methods possess a lot of merits including fast response, simple operation, and less cost, etc. in the detection and determination of biomarkers [18-20].

In addition, owing to the attainment of high sensitivity and ease of miniaturization, and long-term durability, electrochemical sensors and biosensors showed practical compatibility.

Generally, the continuous monitoring of lactate in blood shows a lot of inconveniences during physical events.

A recent research study presents that the detection of lactate and glucose in body fluids including tears, saliva, sweat, and urine using non-invasive techniques using bodily fluids such as tears, saliva, and sweat is very interesting [10, 12, 21].

The several shortcomings of the enzyme-based biosensors including their high cost and low stability, a new design of enzyme-free electrochemical lactate sensors.

There has been a lot of interest in sensors that use artificial or enzyme-mimic nanostructured catalysts.

Due to its benefits of affordable fabrication, improved electrochemical redox characteristics, long-term durability, superior reproducibility, etc., the enzyme-free electrochemical detection of lactate has received serious consideration and made significant development in recent years.

Electrochemical Lactate Sensor

The detection of chemically and biologically significant molecules plays a crucial role in various fields, including healthcare and clinical diagnostics.

Specifically, monitoring lactate (LA) levels is essential, as elevated concentrations not only indicate its presence but also reflect the severity of clinically relevant disorders.

Accurate measurement and continuous monitoring of lactate concentrations are therefore critical for the effective management of these conditions.

Beyond healthcare, lactate is widely utilized in industries such as food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, leather, and chemicals [22].

In the food industry, lactate serves as a key indicator of freshness, shelf life, and storage quality, particularly during fermentation processes in products like beer and wine.

Consequently, the development of cost-effective, high-performance lactate sensors is of paramount importance

A variety of analytical techniques such as optical assays, chromatographic, non-invasive methods, etc. have been established for