Organic Farming: Back to Basics

By Balachandra Mehrotra

"Organic Farming: Back to Basics" explores one of the most popular farming techniques practiced worldwide. This method involves producing crops, animals, and other products without synthetic chemicals, focusing on protecting the environment, humans, and animals through sustainable agriculture. Only natural fertilizers like manure and compost are used, making it more labor-intensive than conventional farming.

Our book delves into the techniques and principles of organic farming, providing clear explanations and detailed discussions. We cover sustainable farming methods, plant protection, and conservation techniques, offering a comprehensive guide to organic farming. Each chapter includes self-assessment sections for better understanding and practical application.

Whether you're a student or an enthusiast eager to learn about organic farming, this book is your ultimate guide. It provides all the essential knowledge you need to master this sustainable farming method, helping you make informed decisions and contribute to a healthier environment.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Educohack Press
• Release date: Jan 3, 2025
• ISBN: 9789361521256

Book preview

Organic Farming

Back to Basics

Organic Farming Back to Basics

Balachandra Mehrotra

Organic Farming

Back to Basics

Balachandra Mehrotra

ISBN - 9789361521256

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Preface

The need to continuously increase yields, which is applicable to the continuously increasing demand on the market, has led to an over-use of natural and non-renewable resources and energy. Conventional farming, in the face of the Green Revolution system, allows for a substantial increase in agricultural production capability, contributing to the maximum possible yield per hectare. Food quality and safety are two key parameters that have received ever-increasing attention from consumers in general. Conventionally grown food has immense negative health effects attributed to the combination of higher pesticide residues, higher nitrate levels, heavy metals, hormones, antibiotic residues and also genetically modified organisms. Moreover, conventionally grown foods are less nutritious and contain lesser amounts of protective antioxidants. In the quest for safer food, the demand for organically grown foods has increased during the last decades due to their probable health benefits and food safety concerns. Organic farming is a comprehensive production management system that promotes and improves the health of agroecosystems, including biodiversity, ecological cycles and soil biological activity. Many studies have shown that organic farming methods can deliver even higher yields than traditional farming.

This book covers the recent developments in the scientific, legislative, environmental and economic aspects of organic farming. The book sheds light on organic food production without the use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides or genetically modified organisms, growth hormones and antibiotics. Attention is also paid to up-to-date techniques that could help solve a number of the problems typically faced in organic plant farming. The popularity of organically produced food is growing day by day due to its nutritious and health benefits. Organic farming also protects the environment and has a higher socio-economic effect on the country. Organic farming also has a significant effect on the wellbeing of a country by ensuring sustainable growth.

Table of Contents

1 Organic Farming: An Overview 1

1.1 Organic Farming: Concept and Definition 1

1.1.1 History 2

1.1.2 Regulation 3

1.1.3 Reasons for Organic Farming 4

1.1.4 Types of Organic Farming 6

1.1.5 Key Features of Organic Farming 7

1.1.6 Four Principles of Organic Farming 10

1.1.7 Benefits of Organically Grown Food Items and

Agricultural Produce 11

1.2 Why is Modern Farming Unsustainable? 12

1.3 Organic Farming Methods 17

1.3.1 Fertilizers 17

1.3.2 Pest Control 18

1.3.3 Six Basic Methods of Organic Farming 19

1.4 Differences between Organic and Conventional Farming Methods 21

1.4.1 Conventional Farmers 22

1.4.2 Organic Farmers 22

1.5 Principles of Organic Agriculture 22

1.5.1 Health 23

1.5.2 Ecology 23

1.5.3 Fairness 23

1.5.4 Care 23

1.6 Organic Farming Practices 24

1.6.1 Crop Rotation 24

1.6.2 Cover Cropping 25

1.6.3 Green Manures 25

1.6.4 Animal Manures 26

1.6.5 Integrated Weed Management 26

1.6.6 Integrated Pest Management 27

1.6.7 Livestock Management 27

1.7 Organic Farming Pros and Cons 27

1.7.1 Advantages of Organic Farming 29

1.7.2 Disadvantages of Organic Farming 31

1.8 Is Organic Farming Sustainable? 35

1.9 Organic Farming with Crop Monitoring 36

1.10 Environmental Benefits of Organic Agriculture 37

1.11 Limitations of Organic Farming 40

1.12 Exercise 43

2 Sustainable Farming Methods 44

2.1 Popular Unsustainable Techniques Used in Modern Agriculture 44

2.1.1 Using Lots of Chemicals 45

2.1.2 Growing and Producing Genetically Modified Organisms 45

2.1.3 Growing Monoculture Crops 45

2.1.4 Overproduction and More Food Waste 45

2.1.5 Global Corporate Agribusiness 45

2.1.6 Growing Crops on Every Space and Inch of Land Available 46

2.1.7 Natural Vegetation Clearing 46

2.1.8 Using Manufactured Fertilizers to Feed The Soil 46

2.1.9 Growing A Few Varieties of Crop Plants 47

2.2 The Problems with the Current Agricultural Practices 47

2.3 Sustainable Farming Methods 49

2.3.1 Permaculture 50

2.3.2 Biodynamic Farming 52

2.3.3 Hydroponics and Aquaponics 60

2.3.4 Urban Agriculture 63

2.3.5 Agroforestry and Food Forests 67

2.3.6 Polyculture and Crop Rotation 71

2.3.7 Growth of Heirloom and Older Varieties 75

2.3.8 Natural Animal Raising 76

2.3.9 Natural Pest Management 77

2.3.10 Mulching, Groundcovers, and Manual Weed Control 78

2.4 Exercise 94

3 Integrated Organic Farming: Livestock and Crop Production 95

3.1 Mixed Farming: What and Why? 96

3.1.1 What is Mixed Farming? 97

3.2 Types of Mixed Farming 98

3.2.1 On-Farm versus Between-Farm Mixing 99

3.2.2 Mixing within Crop and/or Animal Systems 101

3.2.3 Diversified Versus Integrated Systems 101

3.3 Mixed Crop-Livestock Systems 105

3.3.1 Different Modes of Mixed Farming 105

3.3.2 Traditional Technologies - Types and Suitability 108

3.3.3 Technologies in Relation to Mixed Farming 109

3.4 Mixed Farming and the Communal Ideotype 113

3.4.1 Selection of Animal Species 114

3.4.2 Unconventional Animals 115

3.4.3 Dairy Animals 115

3.4.4 Animals to Work the Fields 116

3.5 Crop-Livestock Technologies 117

3.5.1 Integrating CROPS and Livestock 117

3.5.2 Crop Residue and Soil Management 118

3.5.3 Dung and Urine Use and the Cycling of Nutrients 119

3.5.4 Manure and Nutrient Cycling 122

3.5.5 Household Waste and Compost 123

3.5.6 Nutrient Losses and their Prevention 123

3.6 Towards Sustainable Land Use 124

3.6.1 Energy, Biogas and Nutrients 125

3.6.2 Agroforestry and Soil Fertility 127

3.6.3 Management at Farm, Regional and Policy Level 129

3.6.4 The Communal Ideotype Revisited At the Farm Level 129

3.6.5 The Communal Ideotype at Community Level 130

3.7 Successful Mixed Systems 132

3.7.1 The Infield/Outfield System 133

3.7.2 The Kano Close-Settled Zone 6 133

3.7.3 The Machakos Case in Kenya 7 134

3.7.4 The Flemish/Norfolk System 137

3.7.5 The Mediterranean Legume-Grain Rotation 137

3.7.6 The CIPAV System 8 138

3.8 Role of Mixed Farming in Sustainable Agriculture? 139

3.9 Exercise 140

4 Managing Soil, Water, and Nutrients in a Sustainable Way 141

4.1 Soil Management in Sustainable Way 142

4.1.1 Agriculture and Human Society 144

4.1.2 Soil Fertility and Crop Growth 145

4.1.3 Plant Nutrients 145

4.1.4 Soils for Agriculture 147

4.1.5 Soil Degradation and Crop Production 150

4.1.6 Managing Soil Health: Concepts and Practices 153

4.2 Sustainable Water Management in Agriculture 171

4.2.1 Infiltration 172

4.2.2 Available Water Holding Capacity 173

4.2.3 Drainage or Percolation 174

4.2.4 Improving the Availability of Water 175

4.2.5 Life Cycles of Soil Organisms 175

4.2.6 Sustainable Water Management 177

4.3 Nutrient Management in Sustainable Way 178

4.3.1 Using balanced Nutrients in Crops 180

4.3.2 Integrated Nutrient Management 182

4.4 Sustainable Agriculture and Fertilizer Use 185

4.4.1 Why do We Need Fertilizers? 185

4.4.2 Soil Health, Fertilizer Use and Agricultural Sustainability 186

4.4.3 Organic VS Inorganic Fertilizer 189

4.4.4 Maintaining Soil Health 192

4.4.5 The Crucial Role of Soil Biodiversity 194

4.5 Exercise 197

5 Plant Protection and Conservation Methods 198

5.1 Agricultural Pesticides 199

5.1.1 Use of Pesticides: Benefits and Problems Associated

with Pesticides 200

5.1.2 Environmental Effects of Pesticides 207

5.1.3 Types of Pesticides 209

5.1.4 Application of Pesticides 217

5.2 Ecological Risk Assessment for Pesticides 222

5.2.1 Environmental Risk Assessment of Agrochemicals 224

5.2.2 Process of Ecological Risk Assessment 225

5.3 Chemical Pesticides and Human Health: The Urgent Need for

a New Concept in Agriculture 228

5.3.1 Pesticide Toxicity and Exposure 229

5.3.2 Acute Toxicity and Acute Effects 229

5.3.3 Chronic Toxicity and Chronic Effects 230

5.3.4 Pesticide Signal Words 230

5.3.5 Symptoms of Pesticide Poisoning 232

5.3.6 Exposure and Preventative Measures 237

5.4 Use of Pesticides for sustainable agriculture 238

5.4.1 Types of Biopesticides 239

5.4.2 Advantages of Biopesticides 240

5.4.3 Attributes of Biopesticides 241

5.4.4 Why Biopesticides in Sustainable Agricultural Production 242

5.4.5 Limitations Facing Use of Biopesticides 243

5.5 Biological Control of Insect Pests 244

5.5.1 Approaches to Biological Control 247

5.5.2 Microbial Control 249

5.6 Integrated Pest Management: An Ecosystem Approach to

Crop Production and Protection 249

5.6.1 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Tactics 249

5.6.2 What are the six steps of an IPM program? 251

5.7 Good Agricultural Practices in Plant Protection 252

5.7.1 Prevention and Suppression of Harmful Organisms 254

5.8 Plant Pests and Diseases 261

5.8.1 Cassava Virus Diseases 262

5.8.2 Desert Locust 263

5.8.3 Wheat Rusts 263

5.9 Effects of Global Change on Soil Conditions In Relation To

Plant Growth and Food Production 264

5.10 Water for Sustainable Food and Agriculture 266

5.10.1 Developing Drought Tolerant Crops 267

5.10.2 Plant Drought Tolerance Mechanisms 267

5.10.3 Genetic Engineering Drought Tolerant Plants 268

5.11 Climate Change Impacts on Agriculture 270

5.12 Exercise 275

Glossary 276

References 280

Index 288

Chapter 1. Organic Farming

An Overview

When people hear the term organic farming, they understand it to mean as a method of farming that does not use chemical pesticides, insecticides, and fertilizers to boost the production of crops and other food products. While this is the primary difference between conventional farming methods and organic farming, ecological agriculture is more than just that. More and more people have been embracing the idea of organic farming lately, concerned with health and environmental care issues, or striving for new gastronomic experiences. Switching to organic agriculture brings promising prospects both in terms of welfare and nature improvement as well as food diversity. The benefits of organic farming also include another significant aspect – the higher nutritional value of natural food as compared to the one grown with chemical additives. Despite higher prices, lots of consumers prefer to purchase natural products, with high demand involving the necessity of increased supplies and the exploration of organic farming practices. Organic farming is a technique, which involves the cultivation of plants and rearing of animals in natural ways. This process involves the use of biological materials, avoiding synthetic substances to maintain soil fertility and ecological balance, thereby minimizing pollution and wastage. In other words, organic farming is a farming method that involves growing and nurturing crops without the use of synthetic based fertilizers and pesticides. Also, no genetically modified organisms are permitted. It relies on ecologically balanced agricultural principles like crop rotation, green manure, organic waste, biological pest control, mineral and rock additives. Organic farming makes use of pesticides and fertilizers if they are considered natural and avoids the use of various petrochemical fertilizers and pesticides.

1.1 Organic Farming: Concept and Definition

Organic farming refers to an agricultural system that uses ecologically based pest controls and biological fertilizers derived largely from animal and plant wastes and nitrogen-fixing cover crops. Modern organic farming was developed as a response to the environmental harm caused by the use of chemical pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in conventional agriculture, and it has numerous ecological benefits.

Compared with conventional agriculture, organic farming uses fewer pesticides, reduces soil erosion, decreases nitrate leaching into groundwater and surface water, and recycles animal wastes back into the farm. These benefits are counterbalanced by higher food costs for consumers and generally lower yields. Indeed, yields of organic crops have been found to be about 25 percent lower overall than conventionally grown crops, although this can vary considerably depending upon the type of crop. The challenge for future organic agriculture will be to maintain its environmental benefits, increase yields, and reduce prices while meeting the challenges of climate change and an increasing world population.

International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), an international organization established in 1972 for organic farming organizations defines the goal of organic farming as:

Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved…

1.1.1 History

The concepts of organic agriculture were developed in the early 1900s by Sir Albert Howard, F.H. King, Rudolf Steiner, and others who believed that the use of animal manures (often made into compost), cover crops, crop rotation, and biologically based pest controls resulted in a better farming system. Howard, having worked in India as an agricultural researcher, gained much inspiration from the traditional and sustainable farming practices he encountered there and advocated for their adoption in the West. Such practices were further promoted by various advocates—such as J.I. Rodale and his son Robert, in the 1940s and onward, who published Organic Gardening and Farming magazine and a number of texts on organic farming. The demand for organic food was stimulated in the 1960s by the publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, which documented the extent of environmental damage caused by insecticides.

Organic food sales increased steadily from the late 20th century. Greater environmental awareness, coupled with concerns over the health impacts of pesticide residues and consumption of genetically modified (GMO) crops, fostered the growth of the organic sector. In the United States, retail sales increased from $20.39 billion in 2008 to $47.9 billion in 2019, while sales in Europe reached more than $37 billion (€34.3 billion euros) in 2017.

The price of organic food is generally higher than that of conventionally grown food. Depending on the product, the season, and the vagaries of supply and demand, the price of organic food can be anywhere from less than 10 percent below to more than 100 percent above that of conventionally grown produce.

1.1.2 Regulation

Organic agriculture is defined formally by governments. Farmers must be certified for their produce and products to be labeled organic, and there are specific organic standards for crops, animals, and wild-crafted products and for the processing of agricultural products. Organic standards in the European Union (EU) and the United States, for example, prohibit the use of synthetic pesticides, fertilizers, ionizing radiation, sewage sludge, and genetically engineered plants or products. In the EU, organic certification and inspection are carried out by approved organic control bodies according to EU standards. Organic farming has been defined by the National Organic Standards of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) since 2000, and there are many accredited organic certifiers across the country.

Although most countries have their own programs for organic certification, certifiers in the EU or the United States can inspect and certify growers and processors for other countries. This is especially useful when products grown organically in Mexico, for example, are exported to the United States.

1.1.3 Reasons for Organic Farming

The population of the planet is skyrocketing and providing food for the world is becoming extremely difficult. The need of the hour is sustainable cultivation and production of food for all. The scientists have realized that the ‘Green Revolution’ with high input use has reached a plateau and is now sustained with diminishing return of falling dividends. Thus, a natural balance needs to be maintained at all costs for the existence of life and property. The obvious choice for that would be more relevant in the present era when these agrochemicals, which are produced from fossil fuel and are not renewable and are diminishing in availability. It may also cost heavily on our foreign exchange in the future.

The Green Revolution and its chemical-based technology are losing their appeal as dividends are falling and returns are unsustainable. Pollution and climate change are other negative externalities caused by the use of fossil fuel-based chemicals.

In spite of our diet choices, organic food is the best choice you will ever make, and this means embracing organic farming methods. Here are the reasons why we need to take up organic farming methods:

1. To Accrue the Benefits of Nutrients

Foods from organic farms are loaded with nutrients such as vitamins, enzymes, minerals and other micro-nutrients compared to those from conventional farms. This is because organic farms are managed and nourished using sustainable practices. In fact, some past researchers collected and tested vegetables, fruits, and grains from both organic farms and conventional farms.

The conclusion was that food items from organic farms had way more nutrients than those sourced from commercial or conventional farms. The study went further to substantiate that five servings of these fruits and vegetables from organic farms offered sufficient allowance of vitamin C. However, the same quantity of fruits and vegetables did not offer the same sufficient allowance.

2. Stay Away From GMOs

Statistics show that genetically modified foods (GMOs) are contaminating natural food sources at a real scary pace, manifesting grave effects beyond our comprehension. What makes them a great threat is they are not even labeled. So, sticking to organic foods sourced from veritable sources is the only way to mitigate these grave effects of GMOs.

3. Natural and Better Taste

Those that have tasted organically farmed foods would attest to the fact that they have a natural and better taste. The natural and superior taste stems from the well balanced and nourished soil. Organic farmers always prioritize quality over quantity.

4. Direct Support to Farming

Purchasing food items from organic farmers is a surefire investment in a cost-effective future. Conventional farming methods have enjoyed great subsidies and tax cuts from most governments over the past years. This has led to the proliferation of commercially produced foods that have increased dangerous diseases like cancer.

It is time governments invested in organic farming technologies to mitigates these problems and secure the future. It all starts with you buying food items from known organic sources.

5. To Conserve Agricultural Diversity

These days, it normal to hear news about extinct species and this should be a major concern. In the last century alone, it is approximated that 75 percent of the agricultural diversity of crops has been wiped out. Slanting towards one form of farming is a recipe for disaster in the future. A classic example is a potato. There were different varieties available in the marketplace. Today, only one species of potato dominate. This is a dangerous situation because if pests knock out the remaining potato species available today, we will not have potatoes anymore. This is why we need organic farming methods that produce disease and pest-resistant crops to guarantee a sustainable future.

6. To Prevent Antibiotics, Drugs, and Hormones in Animal Products

Commercial dairy and meat are highly susceptible to contamination by dangerous substances. A statistic in an American journal revealed that over 90% of chemicals the population consumes emanate from meat tissue and dairy products.

According to a report by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a vast majority of pesticides are consumed by the population stem from poultry, meat, eggs, fish and dairy product since animals and birds that produce these products sit on top of the food chain.

This means they are fed foods loaded with chemicals and toxins. Drugs, antibiotics, and growth hormones are also injected into these animals and so are directly transferred to meat and dairy products. Hormone supplementation fed to farmed fish, beef and dairy products contributes mightily to the ingestion of chemicals. These chemicals only come with many complications like genetic problems, cancer risks, growth of a tumor and other complications at the outset of puberty.

1.1.4 Types of Organic Farming

Organic farming is divided into two types, namely:

◊ Integrated organic farming

◊ Pure organic farming

Pure organic farming

Pure organic farming means avoiding all unnatural chemicals. In this process of farming, all the fertilizer and pesticide are obtained from natural sources such as bone meal or blood meal. In recent times, some people are putting their life at risk with harmful pesticides and fertilizers. Population growth is a major problem. By population growth, the need for food is growing. To fulfill the need for food production, using chemical fertilizers, toxic pesticides, and hybrids. From which human health and nature are being adversely affected. Organic Farming is the only way to protect ourselves and nature from deadly chemicals. Organic farming is not a new process of farming. Organic farming is an agricultural method that aims to grow crops to keep the soil alive. And in good health using organic waste, waste crops, animal and farm waste, aquatic waste, and other organic materials. An example of a natural pesticide is pyrethrin, which is found naturally in the Chrysanthemum flower. The principal methods of organic farming include crop rotation, green manures and compost, biological pest control, and mechanical cultivation.

Integrated organic farming

Integrated organic farming includes the integration of pest management and nutrients management to achieve ecological requirements and economic demands. Integrated organic farming is a commonly and broadly used word to explain a more integrated approach to farming as compared to existing monoculture approaches. It refers to agricultural systems that integrate livestock and crop production and may sometimes be known as Integrated Biosystems. Integrated organic farming is a cyclical, zero-waste procedure, where waste products from one process are cycled in as nutrients for other processes. This allows the maximum utilization of resources and increases the efficiency of production, including bee-keeping, dairy management, water harvesting, composting, and agriculture in a chain of processes, which support each other and allow an extremely economical and sustainable venture.

There is no need to use chemical fertilizers for crops, as cattle excreta (dung) are used as manure. Crop waste is used to create compost, which can be used as a natural fertilizer or can be used to generate natural gas for satisfying the energy needs of the farm.

1.1.5 Key Features of Organic Farming

Organic farming is low-input farming, which means that it uses natural sources of nutrients such as compost, crop residues, manure, and natural methods of crop and weed control instead of using synthetic or inorganic agrochemicals. The main objectives of this type of farming are to increase genetic diversity, promote more usage of natural pesticides, ensure the right soil cultivation at the right time, keep and build good soil structure and fertility, and control pests, diseases, and weeds.

The fundamental features of organic farming are based on maintaining a natural system that includes: natural livestock and crop production through submission to an organic system plan; a detailed record-keeping system for all the products from the point of production to consumption; and use of buffer zones to prevent synthetic chemicals from accidentally contaminating the bordering conventional farms. Detailed discussions are listed below.

1. Natural Livestock and Poultry Production

By natural production, it means raising livestock and poultry for the production of their products such as meat, eggs, and dairy by providing natural living conditions and feeds. Any forms of hormones, antibiotics, and medications are unacceptable, especially if used for promoting growth and productivity.

Feeds have to be organic, and livestock has to be pastured. Farm features such as using livestock for plowing, hauling, fuel, and even recycling their waste for manure are key aspects of organic farming.

The control of parasites and diseases is accomplished through preventative measures such as a balanced diet, sanitary housing, rotational grazing, and stress reduction.

2. Natural Crop Production

Natural crop production encompasses crop diversity and organic systems for enhancing crop fertility as well as controlling