The Baker Illustrated Bible Background Commentary

By Baker Publishing Group

We are far removed from the time and culture of the biblical world, and this distance easily leads to misunderstanding and misinterpretation. Our understanding and appreciation for God's Word increase exponentially when we know about the context in which the biblical books were written. So while many Bible commentaries explain the theological meaning of the text, The Baker Illustrated Bible Background Commentary provides fascinating cultural and historical insights into God's Word. Richly illustrated with full-color photos throughout, this one-volume background commentary includes articles by leading Old and New Testament scholars on subjects such as

- countries, cities, and cultures of the Holy Land and the Greco-Roman world
- warfare and execution
- religious groups and customs
- fashion, athletics, feasts, and celebrations
- honor, shame, and hospitality
- and much more

This colorful, informative volume is an essential companion for pastors, teachers, and laypeople who want to enhance their personal Bible study and help others do the same.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Baker Publishing Group
• Release date: Aug 4, 2020
• ISBN: 9781493423354

Book preview

© 2020 by Baker Publishing Group

Published by Baker Books

a division of Baker Publishing Group

PO Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516-6287

www.bakerbooks.com

Ebook edition created 2020

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—for example, electronic, photocopy, recording—without the prior written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

ISBN 978-1-4934-2335-4

Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations have been taken from the Christian Standard Bible®, copyright © 2017 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Christian Standard Bible® and CSB® are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers.

Scripture quotations labeled NASB are from the New American Standard Bible® (NASB), copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. www.Lockman.org

Scripture quotations labeled NIV are from the Holy Bible, New International Version®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.™ Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com. The NIV and New International Version are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.™

Scripture quotations labeled NRSV are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1989 National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture quotations labeled RSV are from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright 1946, 1952 [2nd edition, 1971] National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

Portions of the chapter on 1–2 Samuel are from Robert B. Chisholm Jr., 1 & 2 Samuel, Teach the Text Commentary Series (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2013). Used by permission of Baker Publishing Group.

Portions of the chapter on Luke are from Craig A. Evans, Luke, Understanding the Bible Commentary Series (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2011). Used by permission of Baker Publishing Group; and from Craig A. Evans, The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew–Luke, ©2003 by David C Cook. Used by permission of publisher. May not be further reproduced. All rights reserved.

Portions of the chapter on Romans are from C. Marvin Pate, Romans, Teach the Text Commentary Series (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2013). Used by permission of Baker Publishing Group.

We dedicate this book to our wives, Judy Duvall and Donna Hays, for their never-ending love and support.

Contents

Cover    i

Half Title Page    ii

Title Page    iii

Copyright Page    iv

Dedication    v

Acknowledgments    xi

Contributors    xii

Introduction J. Scott Duvall and J. Daniel Hays    xxiv

The Old Testament

Introduction to the Old Testament J. Daniel Hays    3

General Background Articles

The Assyrians Gary V. Smith    15

The Babylonians Douglas J. E. Nykolaishen    21

The Canaanites and Canaanite Religion Catherine L. McDowell    27

The Cushites J. Daniel Hays    32

Daily Life in Ancient Israel H. H. Hardy II    37

The Egyptians Safwat Marzouk    42

Musical Instruments in Israel and the Ancient Near East J. Daniel Hays    48

The Persians Mark J. Boda    52

The Philistines Catherine L. McDowell    60

Prophets in the Old Testament World Samuel A. Meier    63

Warfare in the Old Testament Boyd Seevers    65

Women in the Old Testament World Mark W. Chavalas    69

Women’s Fashion in the Old Testament World Marcella Barbosa    74

Commentary

Genesis Tremper Longman III    81

Exodus Eric Alan Mitchell    121

Leviticus R. Dennis Cole    149

Numbers Roy E. Gane    169

Deuteronomy Michael A. Grisanti    187

Joshua Boyd Seevers    207

Judges Boyd Seevers    227

Ruth J. Andrew Dearman    251

1–2 Samuel Robert B. Chisholm Jr.    259

1–2 Kings Catherine L. McDowell    293

1–2 Chronicles Samuel A. Meier    329

Ezra–Nehemiah Gregory Goswell    371

Esther Constance E. Clark Gane    391

Job John E. Hartley    401

Psalms Christine Brown Jones    423

Proverbs Richard L. Schultz    459

Ecclesiastes Richard L. Schultz    475

Song of Songs Gordon H. Johnston    485

Isaiah Gary V. Smith    495

Jeremiah Gary E. Yates    535

Lamentations Gary E. Yates    571

Ezekiel Mark F. Rooker    579

Daniel William B. Nelson    607

Hosea J. Andrew Dearman    623

Joel Mark W. Chavalas    633

Amos M. Daniel Carroll R.    637

Obadiah M. Daniel Carroll R.    650

Jonah M. Daniel Carroll R.    653

Micah Stephen G. Dempster    659

Nahum Gordon H. Johnston    667

Habakkuk James K. Bruckner    671

Zephaniah Jason S. DeRouchie    676

Haggai George Athas    680

Zechariah George Athas    685

Malachi William B. Nelson    694

Intertestamental History Larry R. Helyer    699

The New Testament

Introduction to the New Testament J. Scott Duvall    705

General Background Articles

Ancient Letter Writing E. Randolph Richards    716

Athletics in the New Testament World Bernie A. Cueto    718

Banquets and Meals in the Greco-Roman World E. Randolph Richards    720

Baptism in the New Testament World Rodney Reeves    722

The City of Ancient Rome Alan S. Bandy    724

The City of Corinth Mariam Kamell-Kovalishyn and Josiah McDermott    727

The City of Ephesus Mark Wilson    729

Crucifixion Joseph R. Dodson    731

Demonization and Exorcism in the Greco-Roman World Bernie A. Cueto    733

The Family of Jesus Andreas J. Köstenberger    735

Honor and Shame in the New Testament World Rodney Reeves    736

Hospitality in the New Testament World Dana M. Harris    738

Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus Mark L. Strauss    740

The Jerusalem Temple Mark L. Strauss    744

Jewish Festivals Andreas J. Köstenberger    747

Jewish Marriage Customs Alan S. Bandy    749

The Jewish Rite of Circumcision Roy E. Ciampa    751

The Jewish Synagogue Mark L. Strauss    753

Magic in the New Testament World Dana M. Harris    756

Messianic Expectations in Jesus’s Day Dana M. Harris    758

Money in the New Testament World E. Randolph Richards    761

New Testament Household Codes Dana M. Harris    763

Pharisees and Sadducees Andreas J. Köstenberger    765

Pontius Pilate Andreas J. Köstenberger    767

Roman Citizenship Alan S. Bandy    769

The Roman Military Alan S. Bandy    771

Roman Roads and Travel Mark Wilson    773

Roman Rule of Judea Mariam Kamell-Kovalishyn and Josiah McDermott    775

The Sabbath Andreas J. Köstenberger    778

Samaritans Andreas J. Köstenberger    780

The Sanhedrin Rodney Reeves    782

Scribes and Teachers of the Law Rodney Reeves    784

The Sea of Galilee and Fishing in the First Century Dana M. Harris    786

Shipping Practices in the First Century E. Randolph Richards    788

Slavery in the New Testament World Dana M. Harris    790

Traditional Greek and Roman Gods Mariam Kamell-Kovalishyn and Josiah McDermott    792

Commentary

Matthew Rodney Reeves    795

Mark James R. Edwards    857

Luke Craig A. Evans    899

John Andreas J. Köstenberger    953

Acts Mark L. Strauss    1003

Romans C. Marvin Pate    1067

1 Corinthians Mark E. Taylor    1093

2 Corinthians George H. Guthrie    1127

Galatians Roy E. Ciampa    1151

Ephesians Osvaldo Padilla    1167

Philippians Osvaldo Padilla    1177

Colossians Osvaldo Padilla    1185

1–2 Thessalonians Joseph R. Dodson    1191

1–2 Timothy, Titus Ray Van Neste    1205

Philemon Osvaldo Padilla    1222

Hebrews Dana M. Harris    1227

James Mariam Kamell-Kovalishyn and Josiah McDermott    1255

1–2 Peter Kelly D. Liebengood    1265

1–3 John, Jude David L. Turner    1281

Revelation Mark Wilson    1299

Abbreviations    1339

Notes    1348

Image Credits    1422

Back Ads    1428

Back Cover    1429

Acknowledgments

We wish to express our appreciation to the great editorial team at Baker for their outstanding work on this volume. Likewise we thank the fifty-five scholars who took time out of their busy schedules to write the articles for this project. A special thanks goes to Russell Meek for helping locate and acquire many of the beautiful and helpful pictures that illustrate this volume. Finally, we want to recognize and thank our undergraduate student worker, Caroline (Poole) Winkler, for her invaluable assistance in editing this book.

Contributors

George Athas. University of Sydney (BA); Moore Theological College (DipMin, BD); University of Sydney (PhD); Director of Postgraduate Studies and Senior Lecturer in Old Testament, Moore Theological College, Sydney. George has written/coedited five books, including The Tel Dan Inscription: A Reappraisal and a New Interpretation; Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia: A Reader’s Edition; Elementary Biblical Hebrew: An Introductory Grammar; and Deuteronomy (Reading the Bible Today). (Haggai; Zechariah)

Alan S. Bandy. Clear Creek Baptist Bible College (BA); Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv); Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary (PhD); Rowena R. Strickland Associate Professor of New Testament and Greek, Oklahoma Baptist University. Alan has written several books, including The Prophetic Lawsuit in the Book of Revelation (NTM) and Understanding Prophecy: A Biblical-Theological Approach. Alan has also led several study trips to Turkey, Greece, and Italy. (The City of Ancient Rome; Jewish Marriage Customs; Roman Citizenship; The Roman Military)

Marcella Barbosa. Lycoming College (BA); Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (MA). Marcella serves as Collections Manager and Educational Coordinator for the Tandy Archaeological Museum, Fort Worth. She has participated in archaeological excavations at Sanisera (Roman City and Necropolis Dig, Menorca, Spain) and has been square supervisor for a number of years at the Tel Gezer Excavation Project. (Women’s Fashion in the Old Testament World)

Mark J. Boda. Canadian Bible College (BTh); Westminster Theological Seminary (MDiv); University of Cambridge (PhD); Professor of Old Testament, McMaster Divinity College. Mark has written/coauthored/edited/coedited thirty books, including The Book of Zechariah (NICOT); 1–2 Chronicles (CBC); A Severe Mercy; The Prophets Speak on Forced Migration; and Haggai, Zechariah (NIVAC). He has led numerous student trips to Israel and Jordan. (The Persians)

James K. Bruckner. North Park College (BA); North Park Theological Seminary (MATS); Luther Northwestern Theological Seminary (MDiv); Luther Seminary (PhD); Paul W. Brandel Professor of Biblical Interpretation, North Park Theological Seminary. Jim has written/coedited several books, including Exodus (Understanding the Bible Commentary); Living Faith: Reflections on Covenant Affirmations; Healthy Human Life: A Biblical Perspective; Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah (NIVAC); and Implied Law in the Abraham Narrative. (Habakkuk)

M. Daniel Carroll R. (Rodas). Rice University (BA); Dallas Theological Seminary (ThM); University of Sheffield (PhD); Blanchard Professor of Old Testament, Wheaton College. Danny has authored/coauthored/coedited thirteen books, including Family in the Bible: Exploring the Customs, Culture, and Context; Amos (NICOT); Amos—The Prophet and His Oracles: Research on the Book of Amos; Wrestling with the Violence of God: Soundings in the Old Testament Texts; and Christians at the Border: Immigration, the Church, and the Bible. (Amos; Obadiah; Jonah)

Mark W. Chavalas. California State University, Northridge (BA); University of California, Los Angeles (MA, PhD); Professor of History, University of Wisconsin, La Crosse. Mark has authored/coauthored/coedited numerous books, including New Horizons in the Study of Ancient Syria; Emar: The History, Religion, and Culture of a Syrian Town in the Late Bronze Age; Women in the Ancient Near East; Mesopotamia and the Bible; The IVP Bible Background Commentary; and The Ancient Near East: Historical Sources in Translation. He has worked as the field director, field supervisor, or field epigraphist at a number of archaeological sites, including Tel Ashara/Terqa, Tel Qraya, and Tel Mozan/Urkesh. (Women in the Old Testament World; Joel)

Robert B. Chisholm Jr. Syracuse University (BA); Grace Theological Seminary (MDiv, ThM); Dallas Theological Seminary (PhD); Chair and Senior Professor of Old Testament Studies, Dallas Theological Seminary. Bob has authored numerous books, including 1 & 2 Samuel (TTCS); A Commentary on Judges and Ruth (KEL); Interpreting the Historical Books: An Exegetical Handbook (HOTE); Handbook on the Prophets; and Interpreting the Minor Prophets. (1–2 Samuel)

Roy E. Ciampa. Gordon College (BA); Denver Seminary (MDiv); University of Aberdeen (PhD); S. Louis and Ann W. Armstrong Professor of Religion and Chair of the Department of Religion, Samford University. Roy has written two books: The Presence and Function of Scripture in Galatians 1 and 2 (WUNT) and The First Letter to the Corinthians (PNTC), coauthored with Brian S. Rosner. (The Jewish Rite of Circumcision; Galatians)

R. Dennis Cole. University of Florida (BA); Western Conservative Baptist Seminary (MDiv, ThM); New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary (PhD); Professor of Old Testament Hebrew and Archaeology and Mcfarland Chair of Archaeology, New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary. Dennis has written Numbers (NAC) and Numbers (ZIBBCOT). He has participated in archaeological excavations at Beersheba, Tel Batash-Timnah, Tel Qasile, Tel Beth Shean, Tel Rehob, and Tel Gezer. (Leviticus)

Bernie A. Cueto. Florida International University (BA); Dallas Theological Seminary (ThM, PhD); Campus Pastor and Associate Professor of Biblical and Theological Studies, Palm Beach Atlantic University. (Athletics in the New Testament World; Demonization and Exorcism in the Greco-Roman World)

J. Andrew Dearman. University of North Carolina (BA); Princeton Theological Seminary (MDiv); Emory University (PhD); Professor of Old Testament, Fuller Theological Seminary. Andy has written numerous books, including Hosea (NICOT); Jeremiah and Lamentations (NIVAC); Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab; Religion and Culture in Ancient Israel; and Property Rights in the Eighth-Century Prophets: The Conflict and Its Background. He has served as field supervisor, staff member, or survey director at Khirbet Iskander, Khirbet al Mudaynah, and for the Central Moab Survey and Northern Moab Survey. (Ruth; Hosea)

Stephen G. Dempster. University of Western Ontario (BA); Westminster Theological Seminary (MAR); University of Toronto (MA, PhD); Professor of Religious Studies, Crandall University. Stephen has written several books, including Dominion and Dynasty: A Biblical Theology of the Hebrew Bible and Micah: A Commentary (THOTC). (Micah)

Jason S. DeRouchie. Taylor University (BA); Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary (MDiv); Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (PhD); Research Professor of Old Testament and Biblical Theology, Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. Jason has authored/coauthored/edited numerous books and articles, including A Modern Grammar for Biblical Hebrew; What the Old Testament Authors Really Cared About; Zephaniah (ESVEC); and Zephaniah (ZECOT). (Zephaniah)

Joseph R. Dodson. Ouachita Baptist University (BA); Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv); University of Aberdeen (PhD); Associate Professor of New Testament, Denver Seminary. Joey has authored/edited/coedited numerous books, including The Powers of Personification; Paul and the Second Century; Paul and the Greco-Roman Philosophical Tradition; and Paul and Seneca in Dialogue. (Crucifixion; 1–2 Thessalonians)

J. Scott Duvall. Ouachita Baptist University (BA); Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv, PhD); Chair of Biblical Studies and Fuller Professor of New Testament, Ouachita Baptist University. Scott is author/coauthor of over a dozen books, including Revelation (TTCS); The Heart of Revelation; The Baker Illustrated Bible Handbook; Grasping God’s Word; Living God’s Word; Experiencing God’s Story of Life and Hope; and Biblical Greek Exegesis. He has led numerous study trips to Turkey and Israel. (The New Testament, general editor)

James R. Edwards. Whitworth University (BA); Princeton Theological Seminary (MDiv); New Testament Studies, University of Zurich, Switzerland; Fuller Theological Seminary (PhD); Bruner-Welch Professor of Theology Emeritus, Whitworth University. James has written twelve books, including The Gospel According to Mark (PNTC); Is Jesus the Only Savior?; The Hebrew Gospel and the Development of the Synoptic Tradition; and The Gospel According to Luke (PNTC). James has also led numerous study tours to Israel and Turkey, and has published several articles on Greek epigraphy in Turkey. (Mark)

Craig A. Evans. Claremont McKenna College (BA); Western Seminary (MDiv); Claremont Graduate University (MA); Claremont Graduate University (PhD); Károli Gáspár Református University, Budapest (DHabil); John Bisagno Distinguished Professor of Christian Origins, Houston Baptist University. Craig has written eighty books, including Jesus and the Remains of His Day; God Speaks: What He Says, What He Means; Matthew (NCamBC); Jesus and His World; and Ancient Texts for New Testament Studies. He has participated in archaeological digs at Mount Zion (Jerusalem) and Kourion (Cyprus) and has led several study trips to Israel. He also serves as a consultant for the Museum of the Bible. (Luke)

Constance E. Clark Gane. Pacific Union College (BS); University of California, Berkeley (MA, PhD); Associate Professor of Archaeology and Old Testament, Curator of the Horn Archaeological Museum, and Associate Director of the Institute of Archaeology, Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary, Andrews University. Connie has written Composite Beings in Neo-Babylonian Art and Esther (SDAIBC). She has participated in archaeological excavations at Tel Dor, Tel Dan, and Nineveh (Iraq). She has worked as field archaeologist at Tel Gezer, San Miceli (Sicily), and Kurion (Cyprus), and as field supervisor or codirector at Tall Jalul (Jordan), Madaba Plains Project. She has led study tours to Egypt, Israel, and Jordan. (Esther)

Roy E. Gane. Pacific Union College (BA, BMus); University of California, Berkeley (MA, PhD); Professor of Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near Eastern Languages, Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary, Andrews University. Roy has written/coedited nine books, including Leviticus, Numbers (NIVAC); Cult and Character: Purification Offerings, Day of Atonement, and Theodicy; In the Shadow of Shekinah: God’s Journey with Us; and Ritual Dynamic Structure. He has worked as Akkadian epigrapher and area supervisor for archaeological work at Nineveh (Iraq) and as square supervisor and Northwest Semitic epigrapher for excavations at Tall Jalul (Jordan), as part of the Madaba Plains Project. (Numbers)

Gregory Goswell. University of Sydney (BSc[Med]); University of London (BD); Australian College of Theology (MTh); University of Sydney (PhD); Academic Dean and Lecturer in Old Testament, Christ College, Sydney. Greg has written Ezra-Nehemiah (EPSC) and coauthored Unceasing Kindness: A Biblical Theology of Ruth (NSBT). (Ezra–Nehemiah)

Michael A. Grisanti. Pillsbury Baptist Bible College (BA); Central Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv, ThM); Dallas Theological Seminary (PhD); Professor of Old Testament, Chair of the Old Testament Department, Director of the TMS Israel Study Trip, and Distinguished Research Professor of Old Testament, The Master’s Seminary. Michael has authored/coauthored numerous articles and books, including Deuteronomy (EBC); The World and the Word: An Introduction to the Old Testament; and Giving the Sense: Understanding and Using Old Testament Historical Texts. He has led numerous trips to the Holy Lands. (Deuteronomy)

George H. Guthrie. Union University (BA); Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv); Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (ThM); Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (PhD); Professor of New Testament, Regent College. George has written numerous books, including Hebrews (NIVAC); 2 Corinthians (BECNT); Hebrews (CNTUOT); and Hebrews (ZIBBCNT). George has taught courses to graduate students or Israeli pastors on four occasions in Israel. (2 Corinthians)

H. H. Hardy II. University of Oklahoma (BA); Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv); University of Chicago (MA, PhD); Assistant Professor of Old Testament and Semitic Languages, Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary. Chip has contributed to Semitic Inscriptions: Analyzed Texts and English Translations; Complete Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic Glossary; Studies in Semitic Language Contact; and Linguistic Methods in Biblical Hebrew. He has participated in the excavations at Zincirli, Turkey. (Daily Life in Ancient Israel)

Dana M. Harris. Stanford University (BA); Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (MA, PhD); Associate Professor of New Testament, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School. Dana has written numerous articles and books, including The Eternal Inheritance in Hebrews: The Appropriation of the Old Testament Inheritance Theme by the Author of Hebrews; Hebrews (EGGNT); Revelation (KEL); and Introduction to the Book of Revelation. She has participated in archaeological excavations at Qeiyafa and Abel Beth Maacah, and led student study trips to Turkey and Israel. (Hospitality in the New Testament World; Magic in the New Testament World; Messianic Expectations in Jesus’s Day; New Testament Household Codes; The Sea of Galilee and Fishing in the First Century; Slavery in the New Testament World; Hebrews)

John E. Hartley. Greenville College (BA); Asbury Theological Seminary (BD); Brandeis University (MA, PhD); Professor Emeritus, Azusa Pacific Seminary. John has authored/edited/coedited numerous articles and books, including The Book of Job (NICOT); From Lament to Oath: A Study of Progression in the Speeches of Job, in The Book of Job (BETL); The Book of Leviticus (WBC); Genesis (UBCS); The Semantics of Ancient Hebrew Colour Lexemes; and Proverbs (NBBC). (Job)

J. Daniel Hays. New Mexico State University (BS); Dallas Theological Seminary (ThM); Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (PhD); Dean and Professor of Biblical Studies, Ouachita Baptist University. Danny is the author/coauthor of over a dozen books, including The Message of the Prophets; From Every People and Nation; Jeremiah, Lamentations (TTCS); The Temple and the Tabernacle; and Grasping God’s Word. He has led numerous study trips to the Holy Lands. (The Old Testament, general editor; The Cushites; Musical Instruments in Israel and the Ancient Near East)

Larry R. Helyer. Biola University (BA); Western Seminary (MDiv); Fuller Theological Seminary (PhD); Emeritus Professor of Biblical Studies, Taylor University. Larry has written numerous books, including Exploring Jewish Literature of the Second Temple Period; Yesterday, Today, and Forever: The Continuing Relevance of the Old Testament; The Witness of Jesus, Paul, and John: An Exploration in Biblical Theology; The Life and Witness of Peter; and Mountaintop Theology: Panoramic Perspectives of Redemptive History. He has led numerous trips to the Holy Lands. (Intertestamental History)

Gordon H. Johnston. University of Nebraska (BA); Dallas Theological Seminary (ThM, ThD); Professor of Old Testament Studies, Dallas Theological Seminary. Gordon has published over fifty articles and essays. He coauthored Jesus the Messiah: Tracing the Promises, Expectations, and Coming of Israel’s Kingdom, and is writing commentaries on Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes. He has participated in several archaeological excavations in Israel as a square supervisor (Tel Malhata, Khirbet Makater) and has led numerous study trips to the Holy Lands. (Song of Solomon; Nahum)

Christine Brown Jones. Ouachita Baptist University (BA); George W. Truett Theological Seminary (MDiv); Baylor University (PhD); Associate Professor of Religion, Carson-Newman University. (Psalms)

Mariam Kamell-Kovalishyn. Davidson College (BA); Denver Seminary (MA); University of St. Andrews (PhD); Assistant Professor of New Testament, Regent College. Mariam has coauthored James (ZECNT). She lived in Greece for six months, studying Classical Greek art and architecture, when she also spent time on sites in Athens, Corinth, and Rome. She also co-led a study trip to Greece and Turkey. (The City of Corinth; Roman Rule of Judea; Traditional Greek and Roman Gods; James)

Andreas J. Köstenberger. Vienna University of Economics (Mag. rer. soc. oec.); Columbia International University (MDiv); Vienna University of Economics (Dr. rer. soc. oec.); Trinity International University (PhD); Research Professor of New Testament and Biblical Theology and Director of the Center for Biblical Studies at Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. Andreas is the author or editor of more than fifty books, including John (BECNT); A Theology of John’s Gospel and Letters (BTNT); Encountering John; The Missions of Jesus and the Disciples in the Fourth Gospel; and John (CNTUOT). (The Family of Jesus; Jewish Festivals; Pharisees and Sadducees; Pontius Pilate; The Sabbath; Samaritans; John)

Kelly D. Liebengood. San José State University (BS); University of Kansas (MA); Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv); University of St. Andrews (PhD); Associate Professor of Biblical Studies and Theology, Dean of the School of Theology and Vocation, and Director of the Honors College, LeTourneau University. Kelly has written or coedited several books, including The Eschatology of 1 Peter: Considering the Influence of Zechariah 9–14 (SNTSMS) and Engaging Economics: New Testament Scenarios and Early Christian Reception. Kelly also regularly teaches a class in Israel, Greece, and Turkey that explores the physical setting of the Bible. (1–2 Peter, Jude)

Tremper Longman III. Ohio Wesleyan University (BA); Westminster Theological Seminary (MDiv); Yale University (PhD); Distinguished Scholar of Biblical Studies, Westmont College. Tremper is the author/coauthor of over thirty books, including Genesis (Story of God Commentary); How to Read Genesis; Psalms (TOTC); Ecclesiastes (NICOT); Daniel (NIVAC); A Biblical History of Israel; and The Fear of the Lord Is Wisdom: A Theological Introduction to Wisdom in Israel. (Genesis)

Safwat Marzouk. Evangelical Theological Seminary in Cairo (MTh, MATS); Union Theological Seminary (STM); Princeton Theological Seminary (PhD); Associate Professor of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, Anabaptist Mennonite Biblical Seminary. Safwat has written Egypt as a Monster in the Book of Ezekiel, and he leads study trips to Egypt. (The Egyptians)

Josiah McDermott was born to Taiwanese-Canadian parents and grew up in East Asia. He holds a BComm in Finance from the University of British Columbia and a MA in Biblical Studies from Regent College. He currently lives with his wife and son in Vancouver, British Columbia. (The City of Corinth; Roman Rule of Judea; Traditional Greek and Roman Gods; James)

Catherine L. McDowell. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (BA); Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary (MA); Harvard University (MA, PhD); Associate Professor of Old Testament, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary. Catherine has written The Image of God in the Garden of Eden: The Creation of Humankind in Genesis 2:5–3:24 in Light of mīs pî pīt pî and wpt-r Rituals of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. She has worked as volunteer, staff member, object and material culture registrar, or square supervisor at a number of archaeological sites and projects, including Ashkelon, Tel Miqne-Ekron, Tel Beth Shean, Caesarea Maritima, and the Deep Sea Archaeology Project. She has been the curator for the Cooley Collection of the Robert C. Cooley Center for the Study of Early Christianity (Charlotte, NC), and she was a research fellow at the W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research (Jerusalem), where she did research on material from Tel Dothan. (The Canaanites and Canaanite Religion; The Philistines; 1–2 Kings)

Samuel A. Meier. University of California, Los Angeles (BA); Dallas Theological Seminary (ThM); Harvard University (PhD); Professor at the Melton Center for Jewish Studies, Ohio State University. Sam has written several books, including The Messenger in the Ancient Semitic World; Speaking of Speaking: Marking Direct Discourse in Biblical Hebrew; and Themes and Transformations in Old Testament Prophecy. (Prophets in the Old Testament World; 1–2 Chronicles)

Eric Alan Mitchell. Baylor University (BBA); Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv); Southern Baptist Theological Seminary (PhD); Associate Professor of Old Testament and Archaeology, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. Eric has authored/coauthored/coedited numerous books, including The Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary; Old Testament Survey; A Literary Examination of the Function of Satire in the Mišpaṭ Hammeleḵ of 1 Samuel 8; and Old Testament Survey: A Student’s Guide. He has participated in archaeological excavations at Tel Hazor and Tel Megiddo and since 2007 has been the project codirector and principal investigator of the Tel Gezer Regional Survey Project. He has been an Associate Fellow at the W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research in Jerusalem and has led more than twenty study tours to Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Turkey, and Cyprus. (Exodus)

William B. Nelson. Westmont College (BA); Jerusalem University College (MA); Princeton Theological Seminary (MDiv); Harvard University (MA, PhD); Professor of Old Testament, Westmont College. Bill has written Daniel (UBCS). (Daniel; Malachi)

Douglas J. E. Nykolaishen. University of Saskatchewan (BA); Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (MDiv, MA); University of Edinburgh (PhD); Associate Professor of Biblical Studies, Ouachita Baptist University. Doug has coauthored Ezra-Nehemiah and Esther (TTCS). (The Babylonians)

Osvaldo Padilla. Moody Bible Institute (BA); Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (MA); University of Aberdeen (PhD); Associate Professor of Divinity, Beeson Divinity School. Osvaldo has written two books, The Speeches of Outsiders in Acts: Poetics, Theology, and Historiography and The Acts of the Apostles: Interpretation, History, and Theology. (Ephesians; Philippians; Colossians; Philemon)

C. Marvin Pate. Moody Bible Institute (Diploma); University of Illinois (BA); Wheaton Graduate School (MA); Marquette University (PhD); Professor of Christian Theology, Ouachita Baptist University. Marvin has written or coauthored over fifteen books, including Romans (TTCS); The Writings of John; Interpreting Revelation; Deliverance Now and Not Yet: The New Testament and the Great Tribulation; and Apostle of the Last Days. (Romans)

Rodney Reeves. Southwest Baptist University (BA); Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv, PhD); Dean and Redford Professor of Biblical Studies in the Courts Redford College of Theology and Ministry, Southwest Baptist University. Rodney has authored or coauthored six books, including Matthew (SGBC); Rediscovering Paul: An Introduction to His World, Letters, and Theology; Rediscovering Jesus: An Introduction to Biblical, Religious, and Cultural Perspectives on Christ; Spirituality according to Paul: Imitating the Apostle of Christ; and A Genuine Faith: How to Follow Jesus Today. (Baptism in the New Testament World; Honor and Shame in the New Testament World; The Sanhedrin; Scribes and Teachers of the Law; Matthew)

E. Randolph Richards. Texas Wesleyan College (BS); Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv, PhD); Provost and Chief Academic Officer, Palm Beach Atlantic University. Randy has written numerous books, including A Little Book for New Biblical Scholars; Paul Behaving Badly; Misreading Scripture with Western Eyes; Rediscovering Paul; and Paul and First-Century Letter Writing. Randy has led numerous student study trips to Israel, Turkey, and Greece and worked with the Scholars Initiative of the Museum of the Bible. (Ancient Letter Writing; Banquets and Meals in the Greco-Roman World; Money in the New Testament World; Shipping Practices in the First Century)

Mark F. Rooker. Rice University (BA); Dallas Theological Seminary (ThM); Brandeis University (MA, PhD); Senior Professor of Old Testament and Hebrew, Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary. Mark has authored/coauthored numerous books, including Leviticus (NAC); Ezekiel (HOTC); Biblical Hebrew in Translation: The Language of the Book of Ezekiel; and The Ten Commandments: Ethics for the Twenty-First Century. Twice he has been a visiting student at Hebrew University in Jerusalem. (Ezekiel)

Richard L. Schultz. Michigan State University (BA); Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (MDiv); Yale University (MA, PhD); Blanchard Professor of Old Testament, Wheaton College. Richard has authored/coauthored several books, including Search for Quotation: Verbal Parallels in the Prophets; Bind Up the Testimony: Explorations in the Genesis of the Book of Isaiah; and Out of Context: How to Avoid Misinterpreting the Bible. (Proverbs; Ecclesiastes)

Boyd Seevers. Wheaton College (BA); Dallas Theological Seminary (ThM); Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (PhD); Professor of Old Testament Studies, University of Northwestern. Boyd has written several books, including Warfare in the Old Testament: The Organization, Weapons, and Tactics of Ancient Near Eastern Armies; Hidden in Plain Sight: Finding Wisdom and Meaning in the Parts of the Bible That Most People Skip; and The Quick-Start Guide to the Bible. Over the last thirty years he has worked at numerous archaeological sites (Khirbet el-Maqatir, Shiloh, Bethsaida, Tiberias, Har Tuv) as volunteer, group leader, square supervisor, or supervisor of archaeological excavation. (Warfare in the Old Testament; Joshua; Judges)

Gary V. Smith. Wheaton College (BA); Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (MA); Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning (PhD); Professor of Christian Studies (retired), Union University. Gary has authored/coauthored thirteen books, including Isaiah (NAC); Hosea, Amos, Micah (NIVAC); The Prophets as Preachers: An Introduction to the Hebrew Prophets; Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther (CBC); and Old Testament Survey: Broadening Your Biblical Horizons. He has led several tours to the Holy Lands. (The Assyrians; Isaiah)

Mark L. Strauss. Westmont College (BA); Talbot School of Theology (MDiv; ThM); University of Aberdeen (PhD); University Professor of New Testament, Bethel Seminary, San Diego. Mark is the author/coauthor of fifteen books and editor/coeditor of forty. Books include commentaries on the Gospels of Mark (ZECNT; EBC) and Luke (ZIBBCNT); How to Read the Bible in Changing Times; Four Portraits, One Jesus; and The Davidic Messiah in Luke-Acts. He is also Vice-Chair of the Committee on Bible Translation for the NIV. (Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus; The Jerusalem Temple; The Jewish Synagogue; Acts)

Mark E. Taylor. Mississippi State University (BBA); Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary (MDiv); Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary (PhD); Professor of New Testament and Associate Dean of Masters Programs, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. Mark has written two books, A Text-Linguistic Investigation into the Discourse Structure of James and 1 Corinthians (NAC). (1 Corinthians)

David L. Turner. Cedarville University (BA); Grace Theological Seminary (MDiv, ThM); Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion (MPhil); Grace Theological Seminary (ThD); Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion (PhD); Emeritus Professor of New Testament, Grand Rapids Theological Seminary. David has written numerous books, including Matthew (BECNT); Matthew (CBC); Israel’s Last Prophet: Jesus and the Jewish Leaders in Matthew 23; and The Gospels and Acts (KHNTE). David also studied at Jerusalem University College and has twice taught study groups in Israel. (1–3 John)

Ray Van Neste. Union University (BA); Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (MA); University of Aberdeen (PhD); Professor of Biblical Studies and Director of the Ryan Center for Biblical Studies, Union University. Ray has written or contributed to eight books, including Cohesion and Structure in the Pastoral Epistles (JSNTSup). (1–2 Timothy, Titus)

Mark Wilson. Trinity Bible College (BA); Regent University (MA); University of South Africa (D.Litt. et Phil.); Associate Professor Extraordinary of New Testament, Stellenbosch University. Mark is the author or editor of fifteen books, including The Victor Sayings in the Book of Revelation; Charts on the Book of Revelation: Literary, Historical, and Theological Perspectives; Revelation: Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary; Victory through the Lamb: A Guide to Revelation in Plain Language; and Biblical Turkey: A Guide to the Jewish and Christian Sites of Asia Minor. He served as a cofacilitator for the synagogue excavation at Priene, Turkey. He is the English editor for the archaeological publications of the Mediterranean Civilizations Research Center (AKMED) in Antalya, Turkey. He has led numerous study trips to Turkey, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Italy, Macedonia, and Albania. (The City of Ephesus; Roman Roads and Travel; Revelation)

Gary E. Yates. Washington Bible College (BA); Dallas Theological Seminary (ThM, PhD); Professor of Old Testament Studies, Liberty University School of Divinity. Gary has authored/coauthored/coedited several books, including The Message of the Twelve: Hearing the Voice of the Minor Prophets and The Essence of the Old Testament: A Survey. (Jeremiah; Lamentations)

Introduction

J. SCOTT DUVALL AND J. DANIEL HAYS

Welcome to The Baker Illustrated Bible Background Commentary and the world of biblical backgrounds! We pray that this book will help you in your study of Scripture and enrich your understanding of it. This is a very different kind of commentary. Usually, commentaries on the Bible seek to explain the theological meaning of the text and perhaps how it applies to you. That is a very important task, and we encourage you to continue to use regular commentaries, along with your personal study of God’s Word. But often, since we are so far removed from the biblical world by time and culture, our lack of insight into those cultural and historical contexts can limit our understanding. The mission of this book is to provide cultural and historical background information about the biblical text that will give you a better appreciation for and understanding of the text.

Thus in this book we are not trying to explain the theological meaning of the Bible to you, but rather we are providing relevant background information that you can combine with your own personal study and input from other regular commentaries to arrive at the correct interpretation and application of biblical passages. Furthermore, we believe that helpful and relevant background material often helps make the biblical texts more colorful; that is, it brings them alive and helps us to relate to them. We want to enter the world of the biblical characters, and we ask, What were things like back then? This book tries to help you envision and connect to biblical times.

The amount of historical and cultural background material for each chapter of the Bible is overwhelming, and it is impossible for us in one volume to provide all of the available material on every passage. What we have done in this volume is select outstanding biblical scholars to write the articles on each book of the Bible. Within the page limits of this one volume we asked these biblical scholars to include the material that they thought was most relevant, helpful, and/or interesting. So for each book of the Bible we are not presenting a comprehensive discussion of background material, but rather we are offering information that we (the authors of the articles) think is the most illuminating.

Also, because it is true that a picture is worth a thousand words, we have included hundreds of pictures and other illustrative material that will help you envision and understand the biblical world. We think that the pictures are just as important as the written commentary.

This background commentary is written for people in the church, and it is not directed at scholars. Nonetheless, it is written by outstanding biblical scholars who understand and can access the academic world in which much of this material lies. Yet we have tried to minimize the technical language normally used by scholars and to be as clear and understandable as possible. Likewise, we have tried to minimize extensive documentation, and we have placed that kind of material as endnotes in the back of the book.

Differences between the Testaments. It is important to note that historical context and cultural-religious practices change over time. The Bible spans nearly two thousand years of history. Culturally, historically, and technologically, things change. There is no monolithic unchanging or common biblical world. The cultural, historical, and technological world of King David (ca. 1000 BC), for example, is extremely different from that of the apostle Paul (ca. AD 50). Also, in our study of the OT we will be looking at the religious practices of the ancient Egyptians, Canaanites, and Mesopotamians, while in the NT we will be looking at Greco-Roman or Jewish religious backgrounds or practices. Clearly, historical and cultural information from 700 BC can be misleading or irrelevant for understanding the NT in the first century AD (and vice versa). For this reason, the kinds of biblical background material that we discuss in the OT and in the NT are usually quite different, and there is little cross-referencing between the two.

Cross-Referencing. Because we have so much helpful and relevant material to present in one volume, we have tried to minimize repeated discussions on the same topic. Thus, for example, since the Babylonians appear numerous times throughout the OT, we have decided to present one main article, The Babylonians, in the OT section and then to cross-reference this article whenever we need a discussion on the Babylonians. A list of these special articles for both the OT and the NT are provided in the table of contents. Also, sometimes within the discussion on a specific background issue from a biblical text we have a good, thorough discussion that is also relevant for the same issue in other texts. Rather than repeat that same discussion, we will cross-reference it. For example, if there is a good discussion on a relevant topic in 2 Kings 17:16, we will cross-reference it in this form: See comments on 2 Kings 17:16. Often, however, we will just want to refer to the Bible and point you to other Bible passages rather than to our discussion. In those instances we will simply provide Bible citations (e.g., 1 Cor. 16:19).

Old Testament Quotations in the New Testament. The Christian Standard Bible, which this commentary follows, puts NT quotations of the OT in boldface type. Because this book uses boldface type for Christian Standard Bible verses in the commentary sections, we have put such quotations in italics as well as boldface.

Abbreviations. A list of abbreviations for the dictionaries, journals, and ancient sources used in the endnotes is presented at the end of the book with the endnotes. Here, however, we list the abbreviations used throughout the articles within this book.

Introduction to the Old Testament

J. DANIEL HAYS

The Historical and Geographical Setting. As we mentioned in the introduction, it is important to remember that the events and the writing of the NT and the OT take place in very different time settings and with very different cultural background settings. The OT was written over the span of nearly one thousand years, running roughly from the mid-second millennium BC to the mid-first millennium BC. This time period, and the tumultuous changes that took place throughout the biblical world during this time, form the primary historical and cultural context in which to explore the background for the OT.

Throughout this book we will use the term ancient Near East. Geographically, this term refers primarily to the region in the Middle East that today comprises the countries of Egypt, Sudan, Israel, Palestinian Territories, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. Chronologically, the phrase ancient Near East starts approximately with the rise of civilizations in Sumer (in Mesopotamia) and in Egypt around 3300 BC and continues until Alexander the Great (ca. 330 BC), who conquered most of this area and spread Greek culture throughout the region.

The story of the OT moves across much of this region and time. In Gen. 11:27–32, as Abraham and his family are first introduced, they are living in Mesopotamia (now modern Iraq and Syria). God calls him from there and leads him into the land of Canaan, where he and his family interact with the inhabitants of that region. At the end of Genesis, Abraham’s descendants have moved to Egypt, where they reside for four hundred years, no doubt picking up some strong Egyptian cultural influence. In Exodus God delivers Abraham’s descendants, now called the sons of Israel (i.e., the Israelites), from Egypt and leads them back into Canaan, where for the next thousand years or so they will interact militarily and culturally with both the inhabitants of their land (the Canaanites and a number of other closely related peoples) and their close neighbors (Philistines, Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites, Arameans). In the late eighth century BC (i.e., the 700s BC) the Assyrians (from Mesopotamia, in the area that is now modern Iraq) conquer most of the region and establish the Assyrian Empire (see the article The Assyrians). Next, in the late seventh century BC, the Babylonians (also from Mesopotamia) defeat the Assyrians and replace them as the primary power and ruler over most of the ancient Near East. It is the Babylonians who conquer and destroy Jerusalem (586 BC), exiling much of the Judean population to Babylon (see the article The Babylonians). In 539 BC the Babylonians will then be defeated and replaced by the Persians (from what is now Iran), who likewise will establish an empire that encompasses most of the ancient Near East, including Judah, the homeland of the Jews, as well as all the regions to which Jews had been exiled (see the article The Persians). The Persian Empire lasts until Alexander the Great overruns it in 331 BC.

The Bible Background Material to Be Discussed. Examining the history and the culture of this very complex ancient Near East will help us in our understanding and appreciating the OT. In the OT articles we will be presenting helpful background information and visual illustrations that fall into the following categories:

1. Historical people and geopolitical events. We will identify many of the foreign nations and their kings (and generals, etc.) that the Israelites will encounter as well as the interactions that the Israelites have with these nations. When it is available, we will share relevant information from written historical annals or records that these foreign kings made, which presents their side of the story (often quite propagandistic!). There will be huge geopolitical events taking place in the ancient Near East in which Israel may not be one of the main players but the results of which impact them profoundly (e.g., the conflict between Babylonia and the Assyria/Egypt alliance in 612–605 BC). Thus we will try to explain these big picture events and movements occurring in the world around Israel and the way in which these events affect Israel.

2. Religious background material. Between significant archaeological remains and the discovery of thousands of ancient literary documents we have quite an extensive knowledge of many religious beliefs and practices of people throughout much of the ancient Near East. In the OT the Israelites are frequently struggling against the strong influence of pagan religions and the associated religious practices and mindset of their neighbors. Throughout the OT articles we will try to explain these influences. Also, we certainly affirm that the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Moses is the one, true God and the creator of the universe. In this sense he is completely unique. But God communicates and reveals himself to his people in the OT within the context of their world—that is, the world of the ancient Near East. Thus while there are critical differences between the religious beliefs and practices of Israel and their pagan neighbors (and we will point those out), there are also lots of similarities in practices as well, especially in the basic conceptual world. Several representative examples of this include the following: (1) the basic architectural layout of the temple that Solomon builds in Jerusalem is similar to the layout found in the pagan temples of Israel’s neighbors in the region; (2) hundreds of depictions of lower-level divine beings have been discovered that are composite in nature, with wings and human, bull, or lion bodies and heads, which are very similar to the cherubim described in the OT; and (3) numerous altars and incense burners similar to those used in Israel have been discovered in archaeological excavations. This wealth of information from the nations around Israel can often help us better understand the religious practices and beliefs of Israel, both through comparison and through contrast.

The Ain Dara temple, near Aleppo, Syria, had the same basic layout as the temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. Shown here are the ruins of the entrance, guided by a cherubim-like creature with the head of a man, the body of a lion, and the wings of a bird.

3. Daily life and technological developments. Although no doubt there were regional variations and differences, especially across time, in general there was a great deal of commonality throughout the ancient Near East during the OT period in regard to farming, livestock, food preparation, commerce, manufacturing (pottery, glassblowing, metallurgy, etc.), travel, building construction, shipping, methods and equipment of warfare, and writing, among others. Thus the knowledge that we have of these activities and practices from the ancient Near East can shed light on the day-to-day lives of those in ancient Israel.

4. Literature. As discussed below, thousands and thousands of literary documents from the ancient Near East have been discovered and translated. In many places of the OT there are literary similarities between sections of the OT and literary documents from the ancient Near East. For example, the structure and format of the book of Deuteronomy (the great law code given by God to Israel) is very similar to the structure seen in several ancient Hittite treaties. Thus it appears that when God entered into his great covenant relationship with Israel and defined it in writing through the book of Deuteronomy, he employed a style of literature that the people of the ancient world (educated people like Moses, especially) would recognize as a legal treaty style of writing. Likewise, some of the laws in the Pentateuch are similar to laws that show up in ancient law codes, such as that of the Babylonian king Hammurabi. From ancient Egypt there are written compositions of wisdom literature that have strong similarities to parts of Proverbs. There are also several ancient literary compositions from Israel’s neighbors, apparently well known throughout the region, which describe how the world was created by the pagan gods. The story in Gen. 1–2 explicitly refutes much that is in these pagan accounts, but nonetheless it apparently is well aware of them and follows the general genre (or literary style) of these other stories as it interacts with them. Thus from a literature point of view, it is helpful to explore other literary works that bear similarities in style or content to the biblical text, even if the overall orientation (the Lord created the world and is one God) is different.

Ancient clay tablet with cuneiform writing, containing the story of Gilgamesh.

The Sources. Over the last 150 years extensive archaeological excavations have been undertaken throughout many regions of the ancient Near East. Thus there is a wealth of archaeological data available from the larger region and from the same basic time period as the OT. Particularly helpful are the hundreds of thousands of literary documents (monument inscriptions, papyri documents, tomb inscriptions, and entire libraries full of thousands of clay tablets, etc.) that have been discovered, many of which have been translated into English. Just as one example, in the ancient city of Mari, located in northern Syria near the Euphrates River, over 25,000 clay tablets were discovered, most from 1800 to 1750 BC (near the time of Abraham). These tablets are written in the cuneiform style of writing in the Akkadian language. Within this rich literary collection are administrative texts dealing with food rations and distribution, expense reports, texts relating to the royal harem, palace administration texts, provincial administration texts, treaties, poems and other literary compositions, expense texts regarding the royal temples, ritual omen texts, and over three thousand letters. Here we have a tremendous amount of information relating to how people in this ancient city lived and believed during the patriarchal period of the OT. There are likewise large archives of texts from other ancient Near Eastern locations, the most famous including several sites in the region of Sumer; the cities of Ebla, Ugarit, and Nuzi; several sites in the Hittite Empire (in modern Turkey/Syria); the island of Elephantine (in Egypt); the region of Amarna (in Egypt); numerous other cities in Egypt; and others. Thus throughout the OT articles we will be referring to these ancient documents, archives, or royal annals from the ancient Near East that enlighten our understanding of the religion, culture, and history of the OT period. Many of the most relevant documents have been translated into English and published in several helpful and accessible volumes, such as The Context of Scripture, 3 vols. (Brill, 2000–2003); Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton University Press, 1969); and Ancient Egyptian Literature, 3 vols., 2nd ed. (University of California Press, 2006).

How Do We Know What Year It Was? Throughout the OT articles we will frequently be providing historical dates for people and events. But how do scholars know what year it was for these kings and battles? One of the documents discovered from ancient Assyria is called the Assyrian King List. This document lists out the Assyrian kings in order. Also in this list the Assyrians assign a personal name, called an eponym, to each consecutive year. Thus each year of Assyrian history in the king list is identified by one of these eponyms. These eponyms can thus be used within the king list to establish a fairly tight internal chronology—that is, the time period of each king’s rule and the time period from one king to another. One of the entries in this list notes that during one particular eponym year during the reign of Assyrian king Ashur-dan III a solar eclipse occurred. Astronomers today can identify the exact date for that eclipse (June 15, 763 BC). By using this exact date and the tight internal chronology of the Assyrian King List, scholars can date most of Assyrian history (reigns of kings, campaigns, sieges of foreign cities, etc.) with precision. The Babylonians likewise have king lists that interconnect with the Assyrian King List, and Persian history can also be connected and thus dated precisely. At numerous places in the Bible, especially in 1–2 Kings, Assyrian history (kings, invasions, battles, etc.) intersects with Israelite history, and thus scholars can date those events with some confidence. Then within 1–2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, and 1–2 Samuel the chronology for the reigns of Israelite and Judahite kings and the dates for key events can be worked out internally. Postexilic books like Ezra and Nehemiah, as well as Haggai and Zechariah, provide tight chronology connections to the reigns of Persian kings, and thus can also be dated quite accurately.

The Assyrians

GARY V. SMITH

Geography. The central territory of the nation of Assyria coincided with the northern part of modern Iraq. Assyria was located north of Babylon, east of Syria, south of the Urartu Mountains, and west of Medo-Persia. The Euphrates River meandered through the southern and western side of the country, while the Tigris River watered the eastern part. During the eighth to seventh centuries BC, Assyria became one of the most powerful and expansionistic nations in the ancient Near East. At the height of its power, the Neo-Assyrian Empire included Babylonia, Syria, Palestine, parts of Asia Minor, Elam, and Egypt.

Early History. Genesis 10:22 identifies the original people in this area as descendants of Asshur, the second son of Shem. Archaeological evidence indicates that people lived in this area as early as around 5000 BC. Some southern Babylonian kings (Sargon of Akkad, reigned approx. 2340–2284 BC) constructed buildings in this territory before it became an independent nation, but the first organized attempts to establish political control of the whole area appear to have been made by Shamshi-adad I (1813–1781 BC),1 not long after Abram passed through this area on his way to Haran (Gen. 11:31). Shortly after this, invasions by the Hittites, the Hurrians, and the Kassites resulted in a time of chaos that lasted for nearly four hundred years.

Middle Assyrian Period (1364–934 BC). Assyria became a political state under the leadership of Ashur-uballit I (1364–1329 BC) and his son Shalmaneser I. They defeated the Hittites, the Arameans, the Hurrians, and the Babylonians, and thus were able to expand the nation’s power and influence considerably. Following a period of decline (about one hundred years) there was a revival of Assyrian power, mainly due to the efforts of the strong Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I (1115–1077 BC), who gained control of Babylon for a short time and also conquered forty-two other city-states (even Byblos, Tyre, and Sidon on the Mediterranean Sea).2 After Tiglath-pileser’s death the Assyrians were unable to maintain control over the large area they had conquered, and they were further weakened by an invasion of Arameans from Syria. This period of Assyrian weakness coincided with the northward expansion of Israel under the reigns of David and Solomon.

The Assyrian Empire

Neo-Assyrian Period (934–612 BC). A new era of power began with the rise of the Assyrian king Ashur-dan II (934–912 BC) and his descendants. They were strong military leaders who won several military campaigns and were able to complete numerous building projects in Assyria (e.g., the building of a citadel, palace, and temples at the city of Calah). One example of this military expansion was the war that Shalmaneser III (859–824 BC) fought against Damascus and other entities in the west.3 In order to stop this Assyrian aggression, King Hadadezer of Damascus and King Irhuleni of Hamath put together a coalition of twelve nations (including King Ahab of Israel, who provided a significant number of troops and chariots), and they fought the Assyrians in a major battle at Qarqar in 853 BC. In their written royal annals the Assyrians claim a victory, but this is far from clear. Yet not too long afterward (in 841 BC) Tyre, Sidon, and Israel (under King Jehu)4 were forced to submit to the Assyrians and to pay tribute to them. After this, however, internal conflicts led to the decline of Assyrian power. It was during this time of Assyrian weakness that the prophet Jonah came to the Assyrian capital city of Nineveh warning them of judgment. Continued Assyrian weakness during the reign of Ashur-dan III (772–755 BC) enabled the Israelite king Jeroboam II to expand his influence into the region (2 Kings 14:24–26; Amos 1) and to make Israel a powerful and wealthy nation (Amos 3:15; 6:4–6, 8).

The rise of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC) brought major changes in Assyrian power. In the first few years of his reign he subdued several nations that had rebelled against him, including a coalition between Rezin, king of Aram (Syria), and Pekah, king of Israel. These two kings wanted Ahaz, king of Judah, to join their coalition against Assyria, but Ahaz refused. Consequently, in 734 BC the Aramean (Syrian) and Israelite armies attacked Judah to force it to cooperate, a time of crisis in Judah that provides the background for Isa. 7–8. In desperation, Ahaz sent messengers and gold to the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III, pleading for his help (2 Kings 16:7; 2 Chron. 28:16). In response to this request Tiglath-pileser III defeated both the Syrian forces and the Israelite forces (2 Kings 16:9). However, then he also made Ahaz his vassal servant (2 Chron. 28:20). Later Tiglath-pileser III defeated the Babylonians and was installed as the king of Babylon.

The Assyrian King Tiglath-pileser III (reigned 745-727 BC).

A few years later the Assyrian king Shalmaneser V (726–722 BC) determined that King Hoshea of Israel was withholding tribute and was also conspiring with the Egyptians, so he invaded Israel and attacked the Israelite capital city of Samaria (2 Kings 17:1–5). Shalmaneser V died at this time, but the next Assyrian king, Sargon II (722–705 BC), finished the conquest of Israel, and in 722 BC he exiled many of the people (in the Assyrian royal annals Sargon claims that he exiled 27,900 people)5 into various parts of the Assyrian Empire (2 Kings 17:6). He also resettled many foreigners into the land of Israel (2 Kings 17:24). In 715–711 BC Sargon attacked the Philistine cities of Gath and Ashdod for conspiring with Egypt (see Isa. 20), and this campaign may be reflected in Micah’s lament in Mic. 1:8–16.

A wall relief from the palace of the Assyrian king Sennacherib (reigned 705–681 BC) depicting Judahite prisoners from the captured city of Lachish being tortured.

Sennacherib (705–681 BC), the next Assyrian king, faced rebellions by Merodach-baladan in Babylon and by Hezekiah in Judah (2 Kings 18:7–9, 13; Isa. 39:1–8). Sennacherib first moved to restore order in Babylon (702 BC) and then turned to deal with Hezekiah in Judah (701 BC) (Isa. 36–37). In his annals Sennacherib claims that he defeated the Egyptians’ ally Judah at Eltekeh (cf. 2 Kings 18:9) and then destroyed forty-six walled cities in Judah, including the city of Lachish (2 Kings 18:14, 17).6 Hezekiah quickly paid his back taxes (2 Kings 18:14–16), but this did not stop a large Assyrian army from coming to attack Jerusalem. At that time Hezekiah prayed for God’s deliverance (2 Kings 19:14–19), and God sent an angel to kill 185,000 Assyrian soldiers (Isa. 37:36). The surviving Assyrian soldiers fled homeward (2 Kings 19:36). Because of another rebellion in the city of Babylon, Sennacherib leveled that city in 689 BC, perhaps fulfilling the prophecy of Isa. 46–47. A few years later (681 BC) Sennacherib was killed by his own sons while he was worshiping in a temple in Nineveh, just as Isaiah had prophesied (Isa. 37:38).

The next Assyrian king, Esar-haddon (681–669 BC), continued to require tribute from his many vassals throughout the region. Manasseh, king of Judah, paid tribute to Esar-haddon, but apparently Manasseh was also involved in some rebellious conspiracies against Assyria. Consequently, the Assyrians put Manasseh in prison in Babylon (2 Chron. 33:11).7 Manasseh repented of his sins, and God graciously restored him to his throne in Jerusalem (2 Chron. 33:12–13). Shortly before King Esar-haddon died, he appointed one of his sons (Ashurbanipal) to rule Assyria and his other son (Shamesh-shum-ukin) to rule over Babylon. This resulted in civil war between the brothers and set the stage for the fall of Nineveh, as prophesied by the prophet Nahum (around 630 BC). At the beginning of King Josiah’s reign in Judah (640–609 BC), Judah was still under the control of the Assyrians, but with the death of Ashurbanipal (627 BC), Josiah was able to declare his independence from Assyrian rule and to carry out needed religious reforms (2 Chron. 34:1–8; Zeph. 1:4). Meanwhile, in Babylon, Nebopolasser (626–605 BC) was rising to power, and with the help of the Medes he defeated Assyria in 612 BC. The final outpost of Assyrian resistance was eventually eliminated by the Babylonians in 605 BC (see the article The Babylonians).

Culture and Religion. The people in Mesopotamia believed that kingship was lowered from heaven by the gods, and that the king (often called a priest) was chosen by the gods. Nevertheless, they knew that the real ruler who controlled the world was their god. Beneath the king were high military officials, the king’s advisors, and then provincial governors. The duty of the government was to provide security, to maintain the state’s religions and associated temples, and to establish just order and economic prosperity for its citizens. Both biblical accounts and Assyrian royal annals testify that Assyria was involved in militaristic expansionistic activities almost continuously. Indeed, Assyrian literature and inscriptions boast of their victories and the plunder they took. They required heavy taxation and tribute from the vassal states they had conquered, using it to fund the building projects of their kings.

A wide range of Assyrian religion and culture is revealed through their art on cylinder seals, figurines, plaques, toy-like models, pottery, and mural carvings. Their culture was also rich in literature. King Ashurbanipal established a large library of cuneiform texts in Nineveh containing hymns, laws, treaties, omens, divination interpretations, letters, myths, prayers, king lists, and historical annals.

The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal